Modern Language Teaching Methods

The primary goal of employing the Interchange Objective Placement Test (IOPT) was twofold: firstly, to accurately gauge the participants' English as a Foreign Language (EFL) proficiency and confirm their status as intermediate-level learners; and secondly, to establish the homogeneity of the participant group. The IOPT's scoring system designated scores between 37 and 49 as indicative of intermediate EFL proficiency. The test itself consisted of 50 items, incorporating a variety of question formats that assessed grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension (5 paragraphs). The diverse question types included multiple-choice questions, item matching, and cloze tests, each featuring a missing word with four possible options for students to select the correct answer from. Crucially, all 60 participants in this study achieved scores within the 37-49 range, thus meeting the criteria for intermediate-level proficiency and ensuring the group's homogeneity. This selection of the IOPT was based on its reputation as a standardized proficiency test with assumed satisfactory validity and reliability, making it a suitable instrument for establishing a baseline level of English language competency amongst the participants.

The study involved 60 Iranian intermediate EFL learners. To ensure participant homogeneity in terms of general language proficiency, the IOPT was administered to all students at the Azar language institute in Gonbad-e Kavus. Prior to administering any test or questionnaire, participants received thorough explanations of the procedures and topics. Informed consent was obtained, and participants were assured of confidentiality and that questionnaires measured personal opinions without right or wrong answers. Questionnaires were administered at the participants' own pace over three consecutive language classes. The researchers' decision to use the IOPT stemmed from its recognized status as a standard proficiency test, suggesting acceptable validity and reliability for assessing the participants’ overall English language skills before moving into further research on learning anxieties, self-efficacy, and speaking abilities. The structured administration of the test ensured that all participants were evaluated under consistent conditions, therefore providing reliable data for comparing participants and grouping them based on their language proficiency.

Research question four investigated the correlation between gender and self-efficacy in English language learning. The analysis revealed a statistically significant difference (t = -2.7; p = 0.006), indicating that female participants demonstrated a higher degree of self-efficacy than their male counterparts. This finding aligns with prior research demonstrating higher self-efficacy in language-related areas among girls (Pajares, 1996). Pajares's study showed that when assessing academic skills, girls reported greater confidence in their speaking abilities than boys, contributing to their higher self-efficacy scores. The association of language skills with feminine orientation and the perception that girls excel in speaking (Eccles, 1987) further supports these findings. The study also found that girls exhibited higher self-regulated learning (t = -3.7; p = 0.000), a key dimension of self-efficacy. Noran (1993) supports this observation, suggesting that psychological factors, such as a more positive attitude toward language and a greater liking for it, contribute to girls' higher self-efficacy. However, it's important to note that Bandura's theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999) does not attribute these differences to inherent genetic factors related to gender.

The observed gender differences in self-efficacy mirror trends found in numerous previous studies (Pajares, 1996). Pajares's research demonstrated that female learners rated themselves as superior speakers to their male counterparts, leading to increased self-efficacy. The prevailing belief linking language skills to feminine traits and the general perception that girls surpass boys in speaking abilities (Eccles, 1987) further strengthens these findings. The current study reinforced these prior findings by revealing significantly higher self-regulated learning among female participants (t = -3.7; p = 0.000), which is a key component of self-efficacy. Noran (1993) attributes this to psychological factors, specifically highlighting girls' more positive attitudes and greater enjoyment of English language learning. However, this should not be interpreted as evidence of inherent biological differences; Bandura's self-efficacy theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999) explicitly avoids assigning any genetic properties to gender or gender-related beliefs. The study's implications suggest that educators should be sensitive to these gender-based differences in self-perception and tailor their teaching methods to foster self-efficacy in all students, ensuring that boys and girls both have the opportunity to develop their communication skills effectively.

This research investigated the impact of concept mapping on the speaking proficiency of Iranian EFL learners. Sixty intermediate-level learners participated, divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group received instruction incorporating a concept mapping strategy, while the control group followed traditional teaching methods. Pre-tests, administered using the IELTS speaking section, confirmed the homogeneity of the groups' speaking abilities before the intervention. The post-test, also using the IELTS speaking section, measured improvements in speaking proficiency following the intervention. Speaking performance was assessed using three criteria: accuracy, fluency, and lexical diversity. The study's design aimed to determine if the concept mapping strategy significantly improved learners' speaking skills compared to traditional methods. The pre-test ensured that the groups began the intervention with comparable speaking skills, which was a crucial element in establishing the validity of the study’s findings. The detailed methodology helped ensure that any differences observed in the post-test could be reliably attributed to the impact of the concept mapping intervention.

The study's results revealed that the experimental group, using concept mapping, demonstrated significantly better performance on the post-test compared to the control group. This difference was observed across all three speaking proficiency criteria: accuracy, fluency, and lexical diversity. The experimental group exhibited fewer pauses, increased use of topic-related vocabulary, greater grammatical accuracy, and a faster speech rate. This evidence suggested that the concept mapping strategy had a positive and statistically significant impact on their speaking skills. Pre-test scores indicated homogeneity between groups, suggesting that any observed differences after the intervention were directly linked to the concept mapping strategy, and not due to pre-existing differences in speaking ability. The significant improvement in the experimental group supports the hypothesis that concept mapping is a pedagogically effective technique for enhancing speaking abilities in EFL learners.

The findings align with previous research supporting the benefits of concept mapping for meaningful learning and information retention (Yezki & Nasrabadi, 2004). The significant difference between the experimental and control groups confirms similar studies (Akeju et al., 2011) that showed concept mapping to be superior. The research also supports the findings of Ghonsooly (2009), Gowin (1981), Ausubel (1968), and Novak & Canas (2008), who argued that concept maps improve knowledge and vocabulary retention. Further, the improvement seen in accuracy, fluency, and lexical diversity aligns with the work of Tavakoly et al. (2011). The study's success in improving speaking ability is attributed to the students' ability to connect new concepts to their prior knowledge, highlighting the value of the concept mapping strategy as an effective instructional technique. This also mirrors Rahmani's (2011) findings showing superior results when note-taking was followed by graphical mapping compared to note-taking alone.

This study investigated whether focusing on meaning or form is more effective in teaching Wh-questions to Iranian senior high school EFL learners. Sixty first-grade senior high school students (aged 15-17) in Ahvaz, Iran, participated. To ensure homogeneity, a pre-test on Wh-questions was administered. The participants were then randomly assigned to two equal groups: an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group received instruction emphasizing meaning, while the control group focused on form, using structural exercises. Both groups received 12 sessions of instruction (60 minutes each) using identical materials. A post-test was administered at the end of the course to assess learning outcomes. Independent and paired samples t-tests were employed to analyze the data. The pre-test was fundamental in ensuring that both groups started at a similar level of understanding of Wh-questions; any significant differences identified in the post-test could therefore be attributed to the different teaching methodologies employed in each group. This controlled approach allowed researchers to draw more confident conclusions about the relative effectiveness of each approach.

The results of the study indicated that the experimental group (focus on meaning) significantly outperformed the control group (focus on form) on the post-test (p < 0.05). This finding suggests that focusing primarily on the communicative use and meaning of Wh-questions, rather than on grammatical rules and structures, is a more effective approach in this context. This is consistent with the shift toward communicative language teaching observed in recent decades, where class interactions are emphasized over structural patterns (Brown, 2000). The use of paired and independent sample t-tests provided a robust statistical analysis that allowed for a definitive comparison between the two groups, confirming that the difference was statistically significant and not due to chance. The findings highlight the importance of considering both form and meaning in EFL instruction; however, the results strongly suggested that prioritizing meaning leads to better comprehension and application of the target grammatical structure.

The study's conclusion underscores the significance of using a 'focus on forms' technique that prioritizes meaning in improving learners' grammatical understanding, specifically regarding Wh-questions. The statistical analysis strongly supports the effectiveness of this approach over traditional grammar teaching methods that emphasize formal structures. The experimental group's success suggests that providing meaningful drills and exercises, rather than rote memorization, facilitates the learning process. Learners are better able to grasp grammatical patterns within a meaningful context instead of isolated grammatical rules. The study suggests that to successfully teach grammar, instruction should incorporate three key elements: explicit or implicit teaching of grammatical principles; meaningful activities; and peer, pair, or whole-class assessment to check learners’ output. The implications for EFL teachers indicate a need for incorporating a meaning-focused, communicative approach into their instructional design. This method offers learners the ability to understand grammatical structures by seeing them applied in context, facilitating genuine understanding and use of the target grammar.

This study at Jahad University, Ahvaz, Iran, explored the relationship between field dependence/independence (FD/FI) and EFL learners' narrative essay writing ability. The initial pool consisted of 100 students enrolled in Writing Course I, with 80 female English translation students identified as intermediate-level (scores 30-47) via the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Sixty participants were then selected using the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) to determine their FD/FI cognitive style. These 60 learners were then tasked with writing 150-word narrative essays. Data analysis involved Independent Samples t-tests and Pearson Correlation Analysis. The use of the OQPT ensured that the participants were at a similar level of English proficiency, making it easier to directly analyze the impact of field dependence/independence on writing ability. The GEFT was crucial in establishing the cognitive profiles of the learners. These different tests allowed for robust analysis of the relationship between the learners' cognitive styles and their writing performance.

The study's results revealed a statistically significant difference in narrative essay writing performance between the field-independent (FI) and field-dependent (FD) groups. Surprisingly, field-dependent learners outperformed field-independent learners. This unexpected finding challenges the assumption that field-independent learners would be better at analytical tasks such as essay writing. This result was derived through the application of Independent Samples t-tests and Pearson Correlation Analysis. The study therefore demonstrates that students with a field-dependent cognitive style may excel in narrative essay writing. The finding provides valuable insights into the relationship between cognitive style and writing proficiency, specifically within the context of narrative essay writing in an EFL setting. The significance of this finding is further emphasized by the fact that it challenges existing assumptions and directs attention towards the importance of understanding learners' individual cognitive styles in educational settings. The use of statistical analysis provided a degree of certainty and allowed the researchers to demonstrate with confidence the difference in performance between the two groups.

The study's implications suggest that teachers should pay particular attention to the needs of field-independent learners, who might require additional support. The study concluded that field-dependent learners outperformed field-independent learners in this specific writing task. It might be beneficial to provide field-independent learners with more opportunities for contextualized learning and real-world exposure to language outside the classroom environment. This might involve more real-world experience such as incorporating extra-curricular activities or encouraging participation in language clubs or other forms of immersion. The study's findings suggest that teachers should consider learners’ individual cognitive styles when designing instruction, employing a variety of methods to cater for diverse learning needs, ultimately leading to improved overall writing performance amongst all students. This could involve a broader range of assignments, allowing students to demonstrate their skills in different ways and cater to the different strengths of field-dependent and field-independent learners.

This study compared explicit and implicit grammar instruction methods in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Participants were divided into three groups: a CALL-only group, a face-to-face group, and a blended group. The explicit instruction group (in all three modalities) involved direct rule explanation, sentence composition, rule extraction, grammar book exercises, and translation. The implicit instruction group focused on schema building and providing examples within meaningful contexts, encouraging learners to deduce grammar rules. The CALL-only group utilized the Viber application for instruction, the face-to-face group used traditional classroom methods, and the blended group combined both CALL and face-to-face techniques. This approach allowed for a comparison of different instructional methods and learning environments, providing insights into their relative effectiveness. The diverse approaches to instruction were implemented consistently in each group, thus allowing for a controlled comparison of their outcomes.

The study found that implicit grammar instruction, when implemented within a rich and meaningful learning environment, can be as effective as explicit instruction (Nassaji & Fotos, 2004). The results confirmed previous research (Chiu & Chien, 2011) showing that both implicit and explicit grammar instruction can be equally effective. A one-way ANOVA comparing the three groups (CALL-only, face-to-face, and blended) on a post-test of grammatical accuracy revealed that different modes of explicit instruction yielded different results. The variations in outcomes were attributed to the differing amounts of explicit material presented across different learning environments (Ellis, 2008). This emphasizes the importance of context and the learning environment in successful grammar acquisition. The study's findings suggest that the choice between explicit and implicit instruction might be less crucial than the quality and richness of the learning environment created for the students.

The study demonstrated that CALL-based grammar instruction can be at least as effective as traditional face-to-face instruction. The results provide an answer to the question of balancing meaning-based and form-focused instruction (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Computer-based instruction can offer opportunities for conscious learning while maintaining a meaning-focused approach (Hubbard et al., 2013). Furthermore, CALL offers opportunities for individualized learning to suit different learning styles. This study suggests that CALL can be a powerful tool for improving learner accuracy, particularly considering the current focus on finding innovative approaches to language teaching and learning. The findings highlight the potential of CALL as a viable and effective approach in enhancing grammatical accuracy while fostering a communicative learning environment. The comparison between the different modes of instruction allowed researchers to gauge the effectiveness of different instructional approaches and explore the advantages and disadvantages of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in the context of grammar instruction.

This research investigated the impact of interactive speaking activities on fluency and accuracy in EFL learners. Sixty upper-intermediate EFL learners (32 males, 28 females, aged 27-45) from Kazeroun English Language Institutes, Fars Province, Iran, participated. Participants were homogenized using a quick placement test (version 2, scores 40-47) and a writing placement test (Interchange/Passages Writing Placement Test Form C, scores 6-7). They were then randomly assigned to three groups: a control group receiving traditional conversational instruction and two experimental groups focusing on either fluency or accuracy. The experimental groups engaged in interactive activities including topic suggestion, question-answer sessions, and role-play. The fluency group's teacher focused solely on speech rate and hesitation, while the accuracy group's teacher focused on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. All speech production was recorded and scored using a checklist developed by Hughes (2003), assessed by two raters. The pre-tests ensured a degree of homogeneity amongst the groups before intervention, strengthening the validity of any conclusions drawn regarding the effectiveness of interactive speaking activities.

The study found that the incorporation of interactive speaking activities significantly improved both fluency and accuracy in EFL learners. The experimental groups, using interactive techniques, outperformed the control group, which received traditional instruction. This indicates the effectiveness of these methods in enhancing communicative competence. The difference between the fluency and accuracy groups highlighted the importance of the teacher's focus. The post-test involved the same topics as the pre-test, ensuring a fair comparison, and recordings were scored using the Hughes (2003) checklist by two raters simultaneously to minimize bias. The use of a control group was crucial in determining whether the improvements observed in the experimental groups were due to the interactive activities or other factors. The fact that the experimental groups outperformed the control group strongly suggests that interactive speaking activities are highly beneficial for improving both fluency and accuracy.

The results emphasized that incorporating interpersonal communication skills into EFL teaching is particularly effective in reducing learners' oral communication apprehension, especially in student-student interactions. The study indicated that a shift toward more learner-centered approaches, encouraging students to take responsibility for their learning and participate actively in class, is highly beneficial. Learners' autonomy, the ability to continue learning independently, should be fostered. The research strongly suggests promoting various forms of interpersonal communication, such as pair work and group activities, to encourage active learning and reduce apprehension. The findings highlight the effectiveness of interactive speaking activities in improving EFL learners' communication skills. The study strongly advocates for more learner-centered teaching methods to cultivate both accuracy and fluency in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. The emphasis on learner autonomy, reducing reliance on the teacher as the sole source of knowledge, is a key element in achieving communicative competence.

This study emphasizes the crucial role of needs analysis in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings, particularly for English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The research highlights that understanding learners' needs is paramount in developing effective language curricula. The study cites Brown (1995), who defines needs analysis as the systematic gathering and analysis of information to meet students' language learning needs within specific institutional contexts. Richards (2001) further elaborates on the purposes of needs analysis: to identify necessary language skills for specific roles; to evaluate the adequacy of existing courses; to pinpoint students needing specific skill training; to detect areas for curriculum adjustments; to expose skill gaps; and to address learner difficulties. The study underscores that neglecting needs analysis can lead to significant challenges in curriculum development and ultimately hinder effective language learning. The study therefore advocates for a thorough needs analysis as the foundation for effective ESP course design, contrasting this approach to the more general aims typically found in General English curricula.

The study reviews several existing needs analyses in EFL and ESP contexts, highlighting the diverse approaches and findings. Watanabe (2006) found that Japanese high school graduates require basic conversational skills and the ability to express thoughts and opinions on everyday issues. Kaewpet (2009) investigated the ESP needs of Thai engineering students in a foreign language setting, emphasizing the role of context in determining communication and learning needs. Hun (2006) conducted a needs analysis for an ESL business English course in Korea, demonstrating the importance of needs analysis for improving general English communication skills. These studies demonstrate the variability in learners' needs across different contexts and emphasize the importance of conducting needs analysis tailored to specific learner groups. The findings of these different studies showcase the diverse applications and implications of needs analysis in the field of English Language Teaching. These examples support the rationale for conducting a needs analysis to inform the development of targeted language programs.

This research project focused on a needs analysis of EFL learners at four Iranian universities (Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Persian Gulf University, Islamic Azad University, Payamnoor University) in Bushehr city, Iran. The study acknowledges the increasing global importance of English, particularly in specialized fields like science, business, and medicine, necessitating a shift towards ESP. Khansir and Pakdel (2014) emphasize that needs analysis is the critical first step in designing language courses. The study draws on the work of Michael West (1926), considered the founder of needs analysis, and Richterich and Chancerel (1978), who highlight that needs analysis involves input from the learner, the teaching establishment, and the user institution. Kaur (2007) further supports the need to align teaching and learning materials with students' needs. The research addresses the challenges of creating effective EFL curricula in light of learners' specific needs within the broader context of the increasing internationalization of English. The specific universities and location provide a clear geographical context for this needs analysis study, helping in defining the characteristics and language learning needs of the students involved.

This study in Mazandaran province, Iran, investigated the effectiveness of colligational corpus-based instruction on improving the pragmalinguistic knowledge of apologies among intermediate EFL learners. The research question focused on whether online corpora and colligational instruction enhanced pragmalinguistic knowledge of the speech act of apology. Sixty intermediate-level students were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (30 in each). Participants' English proficiency was verified using a standard OPT test. A Modified Discourse Completion Test (MDCT) pre-test assessed their initial ability to use apologies. After 15 sessions, an MDCT post-test was administered. The experimental group received corpus-based instruction through colligational practices, while the control group used traditional methods (textbooks, audio, video). Paired and independent samples t-tests analyzed the data. Observations and interviews further enhanced the validity of the results. The study design was created to establish a direct link between the teaching methodology and its effect on the learning of pragmalinguistic knowledge. The use of pre- and post-tests allowed for a direct comparison of learners' knowledge before and after the intervention, allowing for a clearer understanding of the impact of the chosen methodology.

The experimental group received instruction using online corpora and colligational practices. The researcher explained colligation and demonstrated examples using corpora, introducing tagging and concordancing software. Participants practiced finding examples of speech acts and co-occurring words with specific grammatical categories (Hoey, 2000). They used both key-word-based dialogue corpora and online dialogue corpora for practice in identifying grammatical categories and observing co-occurrences. After sufficient practice, role-playing activities were integrated to apply the learned knowledge in a communicative setting. Finally, exercises from the CARLA website were used to assess lexical and grammatical accuracy in producing apologies. The use of a variety of methods, from theoretical explanation to practical application and evaluation, provided the students with a holistic learning experience and aimed to improve their pragmatic understanding and communicative competence. The varied materials provided the opportunity to observe students’ use of apologies in a wide range of contexts.

Paired-samples t-tests (comparing pre- and post-test scores within each group) and independent samples t-tests (comparing post-test scores between groups) showed that corpus-based instruction significantly improved participants' ability to use apologies (observed t > critical t; p < .05). The null hypothesis—that colligational corpus-based instruction has no effect—was rejected. The findings align with Deutschmann's (2003) research on apologies in British English, which highlighted the importance of understanding strategies for minimizing or assuming responsibility. The study found that using online corpora to present authentic examples of language use in context leads to better understanding of speech acts compared to traditional methods. The use of corpus-based instruction and colligation, a corpus-based grammatical approach, provided authentic examples, leading to more meaningful learning and improved pragmalinguistic knowledge. The researchers also used observation and interview data for validation. The study's results highlight the potential of colligational corpus-based instruction for enhancing EFL learners’ pragmalinguistic competence, offering a valuable approach that contrasts with the limitations of traditional methods.