Student-Designed Games: Teaching Approaches

The study begins by establishing a clear definition of Student-Designed Games (SDG), acknowledging the varied terminology used in existing literature. Terms like 'games making,' 'child-designed games,' 'games invention,' and 'inventing games' are all considered to fall under the umbrella of SDG. Hastie (2010) defines an SDG teaching unit as a process where students create and practice their own games, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. The section highlights the lack of empirical data in earlier discussions on SDG, emphasizing the need for research to support claims about its educational value. Key educational values associated with SDG are identified, such as fostering independent learning through understanding game rules (Almond, 1983) and promoting critical thinking in Physical Education (Rovengno et al., 1995). The evolution of SDG teaching methodologies is traced, with Smith (1991) being recognized as one of the first authors to clearly link SDG with the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) model, integrating Thorpe, Bunker, and Almond's (1984) game categories. The section also notes early attempts to define the scope of SDG, as exemplified by the work of Rovegno and Bandhauer (1994).

The period from 2010 onwards is characterized by a focus on diversifying teaching methodologies and student learning outcomes in SDG. This period emphasized the efficacy of SDG in promoting diverse learning outcomes and explored various teaching methodologies to enhance student experiences. Researchers like Casey and Hastie (2011) and Casey, Hastie, and Rovegno (2011) contributed to this body of work. Key challenges in SDG teaching are identified, including ensuring all students' involvement in the creative process. Hastie and Casey (2010) introduced the jigsaw classroom method as a potential solution. Another challenge was finding sufficient time for game design without sacrificing valuable PE playtime. Hastie, Casey, and Tarter (2010) addressed this by exploring a project where students used wikis for game creation outside of school. This section underscores the growing understanding of how SDG can be effectively taught to enhance student learning and experience in game-related contexts. The need for comparison between different teaching approaches to understand their strengths and weaknesses within various educational settings is also discussed.

This section details the research design employed to compare two different teaching approaches for Student-Designed Games (SDG). The study used a contextually rich approach, with the researcher teaching both groups to ensure consistent instruction quality and enhance the internal validity of the study. Both groups followed a five-stage game design process outlined by Hastie (2010), including stages such as game introduction, design, playing each other's games, refinement, and final game establishment. The study involved two distinct teaching approaches: one utilizing traditional in-class teaching (NT) and the other incorporating Information and Communications Technology (ICT) tools, primarily Edmodo, with game design activities completed outside of class. The ICT approach aimed to increase student game exploration time during class. The use of both approaches allowed a rich comparison to be conducted. The study included 82 eighth and ninth-grade students from a US junior high school, forming 17 teams. The NT group comprised 31 students in seven teams, and the ICT group consisted of 51 students in ten teams. Data analysis utilized a systematic process of inductive analysis and comparison as proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985), integrating field notes, Edmodo posts, interview transcripts, and lesson plans to ensure data triangulation. The researcher also employed self-reflection to further strengthen the validity of the findings.

The study employed two distinct teaching approaches for Student-Designed Games (SDG): a traditional, in-class (NT) approach and a technology-integrated (ICT) approach utilizing Edmodo. Both approaches followed the five-stage game design process, but differed significantly in implementation. The NT group completed all game design activities during class, while the ICT group conducted these activities outside of class, using Edmodo as a virtual hub for communication and collaboration. The NT group followed a more structured, 'fill-in-the-blanks' approach, with the teacher providing more direct guidance during the game design phase. In contrast, the ICT group adopted a more open-ended approach, with less teacher direction during initial design. The data collection methods were multifaceted and included field notes, Edmodo posts, student interviews, and lesson plans. The study focused on how each approach affected both the teacher's planning and instructional support, and the students' overall engagement and collaborative work.

The teacher's role significantly differed between the traditional in-class (NT) and technology-integrated (ICT) approaches. In the NT approach, the teacher provided considerable direct input and support during the game design phase (stage 2), acting as a more directive instructor. This allowed for real-time guidance and monitoring of student progress. However, during game refinement (stage 4), teacher involvement diminished as students engaged in simultaneous discussions. In contrast, the ICT approach, utilizing Edmodo, saw the teacher playing a less active role during the initial game design phase, while taking on a more significant role during the refinement phase. This shift is attributed to the nature of the online platform and the asynchronous nature of the ICT approach. The teacher's support in the ICT condition involved providing resources such as login assistance, video tutorials, and troubleshooting, expanding their responsibilities beyond traditional classroom management. The shift in the teacher's involvement from the design to the refinement phase illustrates the differing demands of each approach.

Two key aspects influenced the teacher's support demands: the level of direction provided to student work and the degree of linearity in student progress. The teacher's level of input across the two approaches displayed a mirror image. In the NT approach, the teacher had substantial input during game design but less so during refinement. The ICT approach showed the opposite pattern—minimal involvement during design but significant input during refinement. This difference is linked to the instructional format. In the NT group, simultaneous activities permitted direct teacher observation and guidance. The ICT group, using Edmodo, provided less immediate teacher oversight; some groups infrequently utilized Edmodo, leading to reduced teacher awareness. The NT approach followed a highly linear progression through the five game design stages, providing a structured path for students. The ICT approach, conversely, presented a more open-ended structure. The teacher faced different challenges during game refinement in both groups. In the NT group, simultaneous group discussions hampered the teacher's ability to provide support, often leading to discussions focusing on game outcomes rather than refinement. The ICT approach provided more asynchronous opportunities for interaction. However, despite strategies to encourage Edmodo usage, some groups remained disengaged from this platform.

The study highlights the importance of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for effective ICT integration in education, as proposed by Schmidt (2009). The teacher's experience with SDG, constructivist pedagogy, and ICT tools was crucial for the success of the ICT approach. The teacher needed to integrate their prior experience with SDG, constructivism, and the specific ICT tools used. Integrating these three knowledge domains proved challenging. The teacher felt more tested implementing the ICT approach than the traditional in-class (NT) approach, highlighting the complexities involved. The ICT approach required additional technical skills and a high level of anticipation for student challenges. Producing instructional videos to guide students through the Edmodo interface and tools added another layer of complexity. The findings indicated that technological expertise, exceeding simple interface knowledge, was crucial for resolving technical problems. The choice of teaching approach, therefore, depends on the teacher's skill set, experience, and comfort level with technology.

Implementing the ICT approach for Student-Designed Games (SDG) presented a significantly greater workload for the teacher compared to the NT approach. This increased workload extended beyond traditional lesson planning and classroom teaching. The teacher needed to support students' login issues, create video tutorials, track game design progress on Edmodo, and handle technical problems. This is consistent with previous research by Hastie, Casey, and Tarter (2010) using wikis. The introduction of SDG itself can cause a 'culture shock' for students, leading to misconceptions about the activity. The teacher's experience was especially important in the ICT approach to anticipate and guide students through potential problems. The ICT condition required experience with multiple ICT tools, as demonstrated by the need to create instructional videos. The study suggests that a student-centered approach requires teachers to use diverse strategies to engage students and address the challenges of adapting game creation to a non-traditional PE setting. The increased teacher workload associated with the ICT approach emphasizes the need for proper preparation and resources for effective implementation.

The study found high overall student engagement in both the traditional in-class (NT) and technology-integrated (ICT) approaches. All design groups successfully completed their tasks without needing extrinsic motivation like punishments or rewards. This high engagement aligns with findings from previous research using both NT and ICT approaches (André, Hastie, & Araújo, 2015; Hastie & André, 2012; Casey & Hastie, 2011; Casey, Hastie, & Rovegno, 2011). Despite the high overall engagement, variations existed between the two groups. The ICT group showed slightly lower involvement compared to the NT group. This difference wasn't attributed to the use or absence of ICT tools, but rather to the take-home assignment aspect of the ICT approach. Many ICT students expressed dissatisfaction with having PE homework, yet simultaneously demonstrated greater dedication than their NT peers. This highlights the complex relationship between student engagement, assigned tasks, and chosen teaching methodologies. Hastie and Pickwell (1996) suggest that student engagement is driven by either intrinsic interest or external motivation; in this case, the sense of obligation and the desire to succeed in the ICT group surpassed the intrinsic interest in SDG, leading to greater task dedication.

The study analyzed student interactions within their design groups (intra-group) and between different groups (inter-group). Positive interactions were observed in both teaching approaches within the design teams. However, the effectiveness of communication varied. While most students preferred working together during game design, the asynchronous nature of Edmodo hindered real-time collaboration in the ICT group. In the NT setting, students approached game design differently. Girls often engaged in extensive planning before testing, while boys tended to test ideas more quickly. The ICT group exhibited a similar trend; girls participated more actively on Edmodo than boys. The study observed that inter-group interaction was more productive in the ICT group than in the NT group during game refinement (stage 4). Although Edmodo was initially seen as a constraint during game design, it promoted more democratic inter-group discussions during the refinement phase. This aligns with literature suggesting positive interactions through online collaboration (Yücel & Usluel, 2016) and the importance of feeling valued in online learning environments (Kuo & Belland, 2016). This highlights that, while technology can be challenging, it may offer unique opportunities for more inclusive and positive interactions among typically less vocal students in PE settings.

Both teaching approaches presented challenges and opportunities concerning teamwork and collaboration. The study acknowledges that the chosen teaching approaches themselves, regardless of technology use, impacted the ability to develop a positive collaborative learning environment. While SDG is often touted as promoting teamwork and cooperation (Almond, 1983; Hastie, 2010), the study acknowledges that this isn't automatically guaranteed. Vidoni and André (2016) emphasize the need for teacher guidance in group organization to prevent student exclusion and off-task behavior. The NT group, due to its in-class nature and structured approach, fostered stronger intra-group interactions during game design. However, the simultaneous discussions during refinement proved challenging to manage. The ICT group, while demonstrating more effective inter-group communication during refinement via Edmodo, encountered difficulties using the platform for real-time collaboration during game design. Ultimately, the findings suggest that successful teamwork within SDG requires conscious teacher effort in both the traditional and technological approaches to establish clear guidelines for group work, decision-making, and conflict resolution. The quality of the final playbooks is also considered an outcome of group work, with the ICT group producing significantly higher quality, better detailed playbooks which better followed the specifications.

The quality of the final game playbooks emerged as an important indicator of effective teamwork. The ICT group, using PowerPoint in conjunction with Edmodo, produced significantly higher-quality playbooks. These playbooks were more detailed, included clear diagrams, and incorporated visuals that enhanced understanding. In contrast, NT group playbooks often lacked detail, clarity, and complete rules, and contained fewer visual aids. This difference isn't attributed to the technological tools alone but also to the way students approached design and collaboration. The ICT group's ability to revise their playbook iteratively within Edmodo contributed to their improved outcomes. The quality of the playbooks serves as a practical example of how the chosen teaching methods and technology could directly influence the final product, reflecting the collaborative processes employed. The NT group's deficiencies illustrate that a lack of easily accessible visual tools like PowerPoint contributed to poorer outcomes, regardless of students' engagement levels during the collaborative design phase.

The study's results highlight key differences in student outcomes between the traditional (NT) and technology-integrated (ICT) approaches. While both approaches yielded high overall student engagement and successful completion of the game design tasks, significant variations emerged. The ICT group reported feeling constrained during the game design phase due to the asynchronous nature of the Edmodo platform, which hindered real-time collaboration. However, this group exhibited more productive interactions during the inter-group discussions surrounding game refinements, indicating the potential of technology to facilitate positive peer feedback and collaborative learning in specific phases of the design process. Conversely, the NT group experienced more effective intra-group collaboration during game design, with distinct patterns among students, but encountered significant challenges during inter-group interactions focused on game refinements, possibly due to simultaneous discussions and limited teacher oversight. The study underscores that the gains and losses associated with each approach are context-dependent and highlight the need to carefully consider the specific phases of game development when choosing an instructional method. The findings emphasize the nuanced impact of teaching methodologies on both individual and group-level collaboration and learning outcomes within the context of student-designed games.

The study examined the impact of the two teaching approaches on both intra-group and inter-group collaboration during the five stages of game design. Intra-group collaboration (within design teams) was more effective in the NT approach during the game design phase due to the in-class, real-time interaction and direct teacher support. Students displayed varying approaches to design; 'planners' (mostly girls) extensively discussed before testing, while 'doers' (mostly boys) tested quickly. The ICT approach, while using Edmodo, resulted in less productive intra-group interaction during game design, with many teams preferring in-person communication. Conversely, inter-group interaction during the game refinement stage was significantly more positive and productive in the ICT group than in the NT group. The use of Edmodo facilitated democratic exchange of ideas, receiving positive feedback amongst group members, aligning with literature indicating the benefits of online collaboration (Yücel & Usluel, 2016) and feeling valued in an online space (Kuo & Belland, 2016). The contrasting results highlight the strengths of each approach in facilitating different forms of teamwork and emphasize the necessity for educators to consider these nuances when selecting and employing teaching strategies.

The quality of the final game playbooks served as an important outcome measure reflecting the effectiveness of both intra- and inter-group collaboration facilitated by the different teaching approaches. The ICT group, leveraging PowerPoint and Edmodo, created superior playbooks characterized by detailed rules, clear diagrams, and visual aids, demonstrating a deeper understanding of game design principles. This iterative design process supported by Edmodo allowed for continuous improvement and refinement of the rules. In contrast, the NT group's playbooks often lacked these elements, showing simplified rules, incomplete information, and poor visual representation. This difference isn't solely attributed to the technology itself, but also reflects the differing levels of structured guidance and collaborative interaction inherent in each teaching method. The results suggest that providing access to tools like PowerPoint within an appropriately structured environment can significantly improve the quality of the final product, demonstrating how technology can directly influence both individual and collaborative skills development in the context of game design.

The study concludes that both the traditional (NT) and technology-integrated (ICT) approaches to teaching student-designed games (SDG) offer unique benefits and limitations impacting student engagement, collaboration, and learning outcomes. The results underscore that there is no single superior approach, and the optimal choice depends on multiple factors. The success of either method hinges on teacher expertise in facilitating effective collaboration, managing student work, and addressing the unique challenges associated with each approach. The study suggests that future research should explore hybrid approaches, combining the strengths of both NT and ICT methodologies to optimize student learning within the context of SDG. Further investigation using quantitative methods could provide more generalizable findings. It is important to note that the 'culture shock' associated with introducing SDG into PE must be addressed through thoughtful pedagogical approaches in both traditional and technology-enhanced settings. The study provides valuable insights into the complexities of implementing SDG in educational contexts, highlighting the potential and challenges of different teaching approaches, while calling for further investigations into the interaction between pedagogical practices, technology use, and the various learning outcomes in such programs.