Language Teaching Methods Journal

The primary research goal was to examine the psychological characteristics influencing students' self-organization at both individual and group levels. The researchers hypothesized that students actively participating in socially beneficial organizations would exhibit stronger self-organization skills. To test this, they employed a multifaceted methodology. This involved the use of several established questionnaires: E.Yu. Mandrikova's activity self-organization questionnaire, E.Yu. Korzhova's life orientations questionnaire, M.Ya. Dvoretskaya's "Life activity standard," S. Schwartz's questionnaire, C.E. Seashore's group cohesion identification technique, and A.V. Petrovskiy's technique for measuring cohesion as a value and orientation unity. The study's empirical foundation consisted of data collected from 904 students across various Far Eastern higher education institutions. These students, ranging in age from 16 to 31 (with an average age of 19-20), represented diverse years of study and specializations. The analysis compared students participating in public organizations with those who did not, focusing on significant parameter distinctions revealed through the questionnaires. The study's sample size provided a robust basis for analyzing the relationship between participation in social organizations and student self-organization.

The research concluded that students actively engaged in public organizations demonstrated significantly enhanced self-organization capabilities at both personal and group levels. These students consistently scored higher on indicators of success, purposefulness, and persistence. They displayed superior time management skills, exhibited more focused future planning, and demonstrated a greater capacity for self-improvement. Furthermore, they showcased a heightened sense of moral and ethical responsibility, accompanied by a stronger sense of community. The data indicated statistically significant differences (p-values consistently below 0.05, with some reaching p<0.001) between the two groups, confirming the initial hypothesis. Specifically, students involved in self-governance demonstrated notably higher scores in terminal values such as world peace (p<0.001), appreciation of nature and art (p<0.01), wisdom (p<0.05), and unity with nature (p<0.05), suggesting a broader and less self-centered perspective. They also scored higher on instrumental values like purposefulness, environmental consciousness, respect for elders, altruism, and the importance of faith and religion, correlating with their higher terminal values. Interestingly, although they exhibited higher hedonism and acceptance of life, this was interpreted as reflecting a common youthful struggle between pleasure-seeking and social responsibility, rather than undermining their positive developmental trajectory.

This analysis of Faulkner's Light in August focuses on the destructive impact of negrophobia on Joe Christmas, a character grappling with his ambiguous racial identity. The study uses Fanon's Black Skin, White Masks to highlight the psychological consequences of existing as a racially mixed individual in a white-dominated society. The central question is how the unacknowledged hybridity of Joe Christmas, combined with internalized and external negrophobia, shapes his identity and relationships. The narrative explores the psychological turmoil this creates, demonstrating how the constant confrontation with racial prejudice and societal expectations leads to a profound sense of alienation and self-hatred. Joe's experiences are presented as a microcosm of the broader effects of negrophobia in Faulkner's depiction of early 20th-century America, showcasing the internalized racism that deeply affects the protagonist's psyche and actions. This internal conflict heavily influences the choices he makes and contributes significantly to the tragic trajectory of his life.

The study employs a psychoanalytic approach informed by Frantz Fanon's theories, particularly those presented in Black Skin, White Masks. Fanon's work provides a framework for understanding the psychological impact of racism on Black individuals in white societies. The analysis emphasizes the concept of 'negrophobia' as a pervasive force, affecting not just external societal interactions but also the internalized self-perception of Black individuals. Fanon's ideas about the 'Other,' abandonment neurosis, and the futile 'quest for white flesh' are used to illuminate Joe Christmas's experiences. The study highlights how societal racism leads to internalized self-hatred and a perpetual struggle for acceptance within a system that defines him as inherently inferior. The analysis also considers Fanon's critique of 'negritude,' arguing that reducing Black identity to a set of fixed values ignores the complexities of individual experience and the socio-historical context of racial oppression. The analysis seeks to demonstrate how the pressure to conform to white societal standards results in internalized oppression and contributes directly to Joe's psychological breakdown and destructive behaviors.

A significant portion of the analysis focuses on Joe Christmas's relationships with white women, exploring how the dynamics of these interactions reveal the pervasiveness of negrophobia. The study emphasizes that Joe’s interactions with white women are shaped by the racist societal views of the black man's supposedly bestial sexual appetite. The actions of characters like Miss Atkins, who uses Joe's racial ambiguity to her advantage, further exemplify how the system actively uses and perpetuates racist prejudices. His relationships reveal the complexities of racial tension and how societal racism plays out in individual interactions. Joe's violent response to a white prostitute who doesn't react with the expected disgust illustrates how deeply ingrained racist notions become for him. Similarly, his relationship with Bobbie Allen reveals how an initially tolerant interaction can be shattered by the revelation of his racial ambiguity, highlighting the impact of negrophobia in shaping intimate relationships. The analysis ultimately shows how Joe's experiences and his ultimate fate symbolize the dehumanizing effects of systemic racism and the societal mechanisms through which innocence can be transformed into villainy through the white gaze. His death is portrayed not as a solution, but as a consequence of a system that leaves him with no viable alternative.

This section of the document grapples with the core issue of establishing equitable educational practices within a multicultural context. The central question revolves around the optimal approach to curriculum development: should a common curriculum be implemented across all student populations, or should educational content be tailored to the specific needs and cultural backgrounds of diverse ethnic groups within schools, cities, provinces, and the nation as a whole? This consideration extends to the integration of cultural differences and the active challenging of existing stereotypes within the curriculum. The discussion highlights the crucial role of stakeholders and community groups in shaping educational policy and planning. The question arises as to whether the curriculum should be centrally designed or delegated to local authorities and schools while operating under a broader, general framework. This highlights the ongoing debate about achieving educational equity in diverse settings while simultaneously respecting and celebrating cultural differences.

A second critical area of focus in this section is the role of language teaching in promoting equality and inclusivity within a multicultural educational system. The authors explore the advantages and disadvantages of integrating minority languages into the curriculum, specifically considering a non-competitive approach where the majority language is taught as a second language for minority students. The decision-making process around such language policies is acknowledged as frequently being influenced by political considerations. However, the discussion emphasizes the significant impact of these decisions on the students' educational success and their future opportunities. The authors highlight how language policies directly affect the educational attainment and subsequent market opportunities for students, ultimately impacting their ability to fully participate in society. This necessitates a careful consideration of the potential trade-offs between language assimilation and the preservation of cultural identities within a broader framework of achieving social and economic equality.

This section introduces postmodernism as a significant paradigm shift affecting various theoretical fields, attitudes, styles, and disciplines. Emerging primarily after World War II in the West, it's characterized by a move away from overarching 'meta-narratives' and established structures. Postmodern thought rejects the idea of a singular, interconnected, and coherent worldview, questioning the pursuit of definitive answers and final solutions. This leads to a fundamental skepticism toward established knowledge, reason, and the centrality of humankind in relation to nature. The influence of Derrida's critique of Logocentric thinking is mentioned, emphasizing the decentering of previously central concepts and a broader embrace of pluralism and multiplicity. This rejection of universalism is presented as paving the way for new ways of understanding the world, particularly by focusing on uncertainty, complexity, and diverse perspectives. The focus shifts from seeking unified explanations to acknowledging and respecting the multitude of interpretations and experiences.

The core essence of postmodernism is directly linked to the acceptance of pluralism and the rejection of any single, overarching worldview. This aligns with the acceptance of cultural diversity in educational settings. The key principle is the acceptance of the identities of other cultures, even sub-cultures, within educational frameworks. This implies a decentralized approach to educational policy and planning, one which prioritizes the inclusion of previously disadvantaged and marginalized groups across various categories including ethnicity, linguistic background, cultural practices, and gender. This perspective, drawing on Marshall and Peters (1994), positions postmodernism not simply as a philosophical movement but as a comprehensive framework for educational thought and practice. Key concepts of deconstruction, decentralization, and the removal of core assumptions are highlighted, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging and respecting differences and critically engaging with dominant discourses.

Building on the postmodern framework, the text presents a series of principles for educational reform. These principles, influenced by the work of Farahani (1383), emphasize the impossibility of a single, comprehensive educational program, instead suggesting a more nuanced approach. Key principles include: training critical citizens equipped to enact social and political change; fostering conditions for studying radical democracy that unites diverse perspectives; emphasizing knowledge construction through constructive dialogue; actively examining overlooked differences; valuing the practical application of knowledge; incorporating popular culture and cultural studies into the curriculum; and promoting self-creativity through self-expression and critical reflection. These principles advocate for a more inclusive, decentralized, and student-centered educational system that actively empowers learners to engage critically with their social and cultural contexts and to develop their own creative potential. The overall aim is to move beyond traditional, homogenizing educational models toward a more equitable and responsive approach that embraces difference and fosters critical thinking.

Al-Hajri's (2013) research investigated student perceptions of the Foundation Program in English Language (FPEL) assessment in Oman. The study, involving questionnaires and focus groups with 184 students (106 in gender-specific focus groups), found that while students generally perceived the FPEL assessment as effective, they lacked sufficient information about its nature and content. A significant finding was the unexpectedly low perceived social impact of the FPEL, despite its high-stakes nature. Key recommendations included improving communication of assessment details to students and teachers at the start of the semester to reduce uncertainty-related underperformance, and increasing the validity of the FPEL assessment. The study also suggested incorporating more formative assessment tasks to provide timely feedback to students, emphasizing the need for validated instruments and consistent marking procedures among teachers. The findings highlight the need for improved transparency and more effective feedback mechanisms to maximize the effectiveness of English language assessments.

Relf et al.'s (2017) mixed-methods study examined Foundation Program curriculum design in three Australian universities. Their findings revealed a lack of comprehensive mapping in curriculum documents, failing to fully capture the elements of 'enabling education.' This deficiency resulted in misalignment between program attributes, unit learning outcomes, and assessment tasks. Enabling education, as defined in the study, includes academic preparation, pastoral care, transformative learning experiences, skills development, cultural capital building, confidence building, holistic personal development, and adaptation to student diversity. The researchers also found that curriculum documents did not adequately address the 'enacted,' 'experienced,' or 'hidden' curriculum, particularly the last one, despite its importance to quality standards. The study highlighted the absence of clearly articulated principles and values in the curriculum documents, impacting overall quality assurance. The study's findings indicate the need for more robust and comprehensive curriculum mapping that accounts for the full range of student experiences and learning objectives, as well as better integration of explicit values and principles.

This study focused on student expectations regarding English Language Teaching (ELT) at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman. The research revealed that unsatisfactory teaching practices negatively affected student perceptions and expectations. Students criticized teaching methods as boring and overly similar to those experienced in secondary school, failing to leverage the unique opportunities of a higher education setting. Students expressed unmet expectations in listening, speaking, academic writing, and grammar skills. The research indicated that while the university's Language Centre (LC) provided professional development opportunities for teachers, some instructors failed to effectively implement innovative teaching methods or adapt their approaches to student needs. The study identified a need for improved teaching practices, including a shift toward student-centered learning and increased emphasis on speaking and listening activities. It also pointed to the need for the LC to critically evaluate its teacher recruitment and assessment practices to ensure the delivery of high-quality, standards-based ELT education that aligns with national standards and accreditation requirements. The findings emphasize the importance of aligning teacher practices with student expectations and providing effective professional development to improve ELT outcomes.

This section details a study by Al-Hajri (2013) that explored student perceptions of the Foundation Program in English Language (FPEL) assessment at two Omani colleges. Using questionnaires and focus groups with a total of 184 students, the research revealed a generally positive perception of the FPEL’s effectiveness. However, a significant finding was a lack of student awareness regarding the assessment's content and nature, coupled with an unexpectedly low perceived social impact despite the high-stakes nature of the evaluation. Key recommendations included improved communication of assessment details to both students and instructors, a greater emphasis on formative assessment strategies to provide ample feedback, and enhanced teacher training to ensure consistent marking procedures. This study underlines the importance of clear communication, timely feedback, and well-trained instructors in maximizing the effectiveness and perceived value of English language assessments in an educational context.

Relf et al.'s (2017) mixed-methods research investigated Foundation Program curriculum design approaches across three Australian universities. The study revealed shortcomings in curriculum mapping, failing to fully encapsulate the multifaceted aspects of 'enabling education.' This lack of comprehensive mapping hampered the alignment between program attributes, unit learning outcomes, and assessment strategies. 'Enabling education,' as defined by the study, encompasses a wide range of support and developmental activities designed to enhance student success, including academic preparation, pastoral care, skills development, cultural capital building, and fostering self-confidence. The research also highlighted the absence of a clear articulation of program principles and values, as well as the undervaluing of the 'hidden curriculum'—those unstated elements influencing student learning. The authors argue that these shortcomings affect the quality and standards of the programs, advocating for a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to curriculum design that accounts for the full range of student learning experiences.

This section focuses on student expectations and experiences within the English Language Teaching (ELT) program at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman. The study revealed that students' expectations were often not met due to what they perceived as boring and uninspiring teaching methods closely resembling those in secondary schools. Students expressed dissatisfaction with teacher-centered approaches, a reliance on textbook delivery, and a lack of engaging activities. Specific unmet expectations included improvements in listening, speaking, writing skills, and grammar. Although the Language Centre (LC) provided professional development opportunities for teachers, the study suggests that many teachers failed to effectively leverage these resources to enhance their teaching practices. The authors highlight the importance of fostering a dynamic and engaging learning environment to meet student expectations and ultimately improve ELT effectiveness. The study concludes by emphasizing the need for a comprehensive review of the LC's teacher recruitment and evaluation procedures to improve ELT quality and build public confidence.

This section explores the role of anxiety in second and third language (L2/L3) oral proficiency. While some research suggests that anxiety can have a facilitating effect on language learning, Dornyei (2005) argues that, within specific L2 contexts, anxiety primarily inhibits performance. Sparks and Ganschow (1991, 1995, 2007) further contend that anxiety itself is not a direct cause of performance differences but rather that language-related factors, such as L1 skills, are more influential. Their research demonstrated that low-anxiety students significantly outperformed high-anxiety students across various measures of L1 skills, course grades, and overall proficiency. Research examining various forms of language-related anxiety (test anxiety, reading anxiety, listening anxiety) consistently finds that oral production tasks in L2 elicit significant anxiety. Highly anxious learners tend toward passivity and reduced output, hindering progress due to a fear of errors and perceived incompetence (Kitano, 2001). This section establishes anxiety as a key affective variable that significantly impacts oral performance in L2 and L3 contexts.

The study investigates the role of L2 self-confidence, highlighting its importance as a major affective variable influencing learners' attitudes, effort, and ultimately, achievement (Clement, 1986; Clement et al., 1994; Clement & Kruidenier, 1985). Clement's model of second language acquisition identifies two key components of linguistic self-confidence: self-perceptions of communicative competence and lower levels of anxiety. The research underscores the strong link between perceived self-confidence and willingness to communicate (WTC) in the target language (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Learners who believe they are linguistically competent, regardless of their actual proficiency, tend to actively engage in communication, while those who perceive themselves as less competent, even if highly proficient, may participate less. Clement et al. (1994) found a direct link between high anxiety and low perceived competence, echoing Kitano's (2001) findings that perceived L2 incompetence is a source of anxiety. These findings emphasize the significant role of self-perception in shaping learners' communicative behavior and achievement.

This section examines the correlations between affective variables (anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, risk-taking) and oral achievement in English as an L3. Pearson correlation coefficients reveal significant positive correlations between oral achievement and risk-taking, self-confidence, and motivation, alongside a negative correlation with anxiety. Students with higher oral proficiency scores demonstrated greater self-competence, lower anxiety, and higher risk-taking tendencies. The importance of risk-taking is highlighted: it allows learners to utilize existing knowledge and encourages communicative attempts. Although risk-taking can lead to errors (Beebe, 1983), long-term benefits outweigh short-term inaccuracies (Pyun et al., 2014). The study suggests that creating a supportive classroom environment where mistakes are accepted and students are prepared (Luft, 2007; Bang, 1999) is crucial for fostering risk-taking. The finding that 74% of L3 learners reported a moderate to high tendency for risk-taking, contrasts with findings for L2 learners and suggests a potential difference in risk-taking propensity across language learning levels. Strategies to mitigate anxiety, including utilizing virtual spaces for peer support (Campbell & Ortiz, 1991) and addressing low self-confidence (Foss & Reitzel, 1991) are also discussed.