MJLTM: Journal of Language Teaching

This section details the observed changes in teenagers participating in a values and motivation development program. The program significantly increased the importance of enjoyment, achievement, and spirituality values among participants. Conversely, the value placed on sociality decreased. This shift is explained by the program's focus on cultivating internal motivation, which encourages the pursuit of intrinsic goals rather than external validation. The participants shifted their focus from external social stimuli to internal motivations, leading to a greater appreciation of self-directed activities and personal growth. This internal shift is reflected in the rise of spirituality and achievement values and the subsequent decline in the sociality value, as individuals prioritize their internal value systems over external social pressures. The program facilitated the discovery of personal meaning and purpose, unlocking previously untapped internal potential and fostering a sense of fulfillment derived from self-improvement. The increased enjoyment value is a direct consequence of this internalized motivation, while the reduced emphasis on sociality stems from the replacement of external social benchmarks with internally consistent values.

A core element of the study's analysis centers on the contrast between internal and external motivation. The program's design explicitly aimed to unearth and strengthen intrinsic motivation – the drive to engage in activities for their inherent satisfaction, as opposed to external rewards or pressures. The researchers posit that this emphasis on internal motivation explains the observed changes in the teenagers' values. External motivation, characterized by a focus on external stimuli and societal expectations, was contrasted with the internalized drive to find personal meaning and purpose. The study argues that the program's success in fostering internal motivation led to teenagers prioritizing self-discovery and self-improvement over the pursuit of external validation. This is why, for instance, values related to spirituality and personal achievement increased while the sociality value decreased: the teenagers found their fulfillment not in external social acceptance, but in aligning their actions with their own internally derived system of values.

The study quantitatively measured the shifts in the significance of various values within the teenagers' personal belief systems. Following the values and motivation development program, there was a marked increase in the perceived importance of enjoyment, achievement, and spirituality values. These values, the researchers suggest, are intrinsically linked to the program's emphasis on internal motivation and self-discovery. In contrast, the significance of the sociality value showed a noteworthy decline. The researchers attribute this decrease in the importance of sociality to the program's success in helping teenagers prioritize inner fulfillment over external social pressures. The shift indicates a movement away from relying on social approval as a primary motivator, and a corresponding increased reliance on internally driven goals and values. This suggests that the program helped teenagers define their values on their own terms, fostering a more self-determined and internally consistent approach to life.

This section establishes the context for the research by highlighting the increasing relevance of interactive technologies in education. The widespread adoption of these technologies is transforming how knowledge is developed, acquired, and disseminated. It is modernizing teaching methods, expanding access to education, and changing the teacher's role from a passive lecturer to a facilitator of dialogue and understanding. The research emphasizes that integrating interactive technologies is crucial for enhancing the quality of education and fostering a comprehensive development of students equipped with information literacy. The aim is to produce graduates capable of navigating information spaces and applying modern educational technologies in their professional lives. The integration of interactive technologies is viewed as a key component of the modernization efforts in Russian education, particularly in the context of foreign language acquisition, aiming to improve overall educational quality and prepare students for practical application of the learned language in their chosen professions. Sizova (2014) is cited as supporting the intensification and individualization of learning through interactive technologies.

This section delves into the specific didactic possibilities offered by interactive technologies in foreign language instruction. The study defines didactic possibilities as the methods, techniques, and tools enabling teachers to effectively manage students' cognitive activities. Key aspects include the facilitation of direct dialogue through synchronous interaction, the utilization of group experience and feedback, and the active engagement of students as central figures in the learning process. Individualized learning is prioritized, catering to each student's unique needs and learning styles. The creation of a specially designed learning environment is also emphasized. The study outlines the potential of interactive technologies to foster educational and cognitive competencies relevant to professional contexts, ultimately developing communicative skills and a refined communication culture among students. The ability to extract and process information from diverse sources using computer technologies is also highlighted as a significant benefit of incorporating interactive technologies into the learning process. The integration of information technology is seen as essential to maximize the potential of these teaching approaches.

The research categorizes interactive teaching methods based on their reliance on technology. Three main categories are distinguished: methods without technical means (e.g., dialogues, polylogues, reflexive activities, and problem-solving techniques); methods with partial use of technical means (e.g., using the internet for communication with native speakers); and methods that fully utilize technical means (audiovisual). The first category encompasses various communicative exercises and problem-solving strategies aimed at stimulating creative thinking. The second category focuses on independent study facilitated by online interaction with native speakers (the Tandem method is mentioned as an example). The third category refers to using audiovisual aids to enhance language learning, enhancing the immersive quality of the educational experience. These different approaches to incorporating technology into the classroom are assessed for their effectiveness in improving language learning outcomes and fostering student engagement.

This section details the research methodology and findings of the study conducted at Kazan (Volga region) Federal University. The research involved students specializing in "Foreign Language" and was conducted in two stages. The first stage (September 2015) involved gathering baseline data, including students' existing knowledge of multimedia in foreign language teaching, internet usage for learning, information processing skills, and the relationship between language competence and professional activities. The second stage (May 2016) focused on developing and testing methods for utilizing interactive technologies in foreign language instruction. The researchers implemented a pedagogical experiment, employing diagnostic tools like polls and surveys to evaluate the effectiveness of interactive technologies in developing foreign language skills and communicative competence. The study concluded that the use of interactive technologies produced a positive impact on the development of foreign language proficiency, supporting the hypothesis of the research and highlighting the benefits of using multimedia and interactive learning environments for improved learning outcomes.

The study concludes that interactive technologies are essential for effective foreign language teaching. They foster an innovative learning environment that cultivates professional and personal growth, enabling students to confidently express themselves within a multilingual context. The development of communicative competence is highlighted as a crucial aspect of foreign language education, encompassing linguistic, discursive, sociocultural, compensatory, educational, and cognitive components. Interactive technologies are seen not just as communication tools but also as powerful means to stimulate the cognitive processes involved in language learning. While interactive technologies offer significant advantages, the study underscores the enduring importance of the teacher as an indispensable element of the educational process, complementing and guiding the use of technology for optimal student learning. The study suggests that using interactive technologies creates higher-quality educational materials, improving student learning effectiveness. Multimedia equipment is viewed as enriching the learning experience, increasing student motivation, and facilitating closer collaboration between teacher and student.

This research addresses the challenge many teachers face in effectively employing problem dialogue techniques in their professional practice, particularly within elementary school literature lessons. The study aims to determine the efficiency of specific problem dialogue organization techniques, to unveil their characteristics in the context of elementary school literature classes, and to develop model lesson plans that incorporate problem-based and dialogical methods. The need for innovation in educational processes led to the focus on educational technologies and research methodologies within elementary school settings. The overall goal is to improve the learning experience and enhance the creative potential of students through improved teaching methods. The study's findings aim to provide practical materials and insights that can be used by teachers, students, and educators at all levels to improve the elementary school educational process. The research was conducted in Kazan, Russia, across three schools (No. 167, 27, and 75).

The study utilized a mixed-methods approach to investigate the effectiveness of problem dialogue techniques. A key method involved questioning elementary school pupils, involving a significant sample size of 87 teachers and 516 students. The analysis also incorporated the review of relevant school documentation to diagnose students' literature achievements. This allowed for a comprehensive assessment of the impact of the teaching methodologies. The combined data from questionnaires and documentary analysis provided a robust basis for evaluating the effectiveness of problem-based and dialogical learning approaches in elementary school. The diverse data sources, encompassing both quantitative and qualitative data, were essential for providing insights into both the implementation and impact of problem dialogue techniques in the classroom. The research was conducted in Kazan, Russia, to provide a focused study within a specific educational context.

This section delves into the specifics of problem dialogue as a teaching methodology. It outlines the technology and methods used to organize problem-based learning within elementary school literature lessons. The study describes how teachers should respond to educational problems proposed by students, emphasizing the importance of a dynamic and responsive teaching style. The analysis provides specific insights into creating effective problem situations relevant to the subject matter, aiming to stimulate student engagement and critical thinking skills. The discussion highlights how adapting the problem-solving process to diverse student abilities is crucial for maximizing the effectiveness of the methodology. The section provides a practical guide for teachers seeking to integrate problem dialogue into their teaching practices, offering concrete examples of how to structure lessons and respond to student-initiated questions and challenges. The focus is on creating an active learning environment where students take an active role in shaping their educational experience.

The study emphasizes the importance of the dialogic principle in language teaching. This approach views learning as a collaborative process, encouraging student participation and interaction. The research suggests extending the use of problem dialogue to incorporate intercultural perspectives. In multiethnic classrooms common in Russia, the study proposes that students engage with riddles and problem-solving activities in their native languages and the languages they are learning at school (such as English). This creates opportunities for comparison and translation, fostering intercultural understanding and enhancing linguistic abilities. The use of multilingual activities within the classroom allows for the development of both language skills and cultural awareness. The method promotes not only language acquisition but also the understanding of different cultural perspectives. This demonstrates a flexible and inclusive approach to teaching that values the students’ diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The comparison of riddles in different languages illustrates this principle.

The conclusion summarizes the study's findings regarding the implementation of a linguoculturological approach in Russian language teaching. The research emphasizes the effectiveness of using specially selected texts, particularly riddles containing metaphors, to convey cultural and national specifics. Riddle usage is considered optimal for the primary school age. The presented method aims to develop linguoculturological knowledge among primary school students. This approach emphasizes the integrative abilities of the Russian language as a school subject. It showcases the development of universal teaching activities, leading to metasubjective and personal results while fostering the development of students' individual personalities. The findings contribute to the ongoing effort to improve the effectiveness of Russian language teaching, particularly at the primary school level. The materials of this study are intended for the practical application by elementary school teachers to improve the educational process in Russia.

This section highlights the growing need for linguoculturological competence in today's interconnected world. The ability to effectively communicate across cultures is increasingly important. While primary school education is a crucial stage for developing this competence, current Russian language curricula do not adequately leverage the linguoculturological potential of readily available resources. The article identifies a gap in the existing school courseware, noting that the rich cultural and linguistic insights embedded within riddles, a significant minor folklore genre, are often overlooked in Russian language lessons. This research addresses this gap by proposing a more effective methodology for teaching riddles as complete literary works. The study argues that this approach better utilizes the resources to foster linguoculturological understanding and improve intercultural communication among primary-age schoolchildren. The research aims to address this educational deficiency by promoting the use of a linguoculturological teaching approach at the primary school level.

The study begins by analyzing the current use of riddles in existing primary school Russian language coursebooks. It finds that while riddles comprise only 1.92% of the total texts used, exercises based on them are present. However, the majority of these exercises (48%) focus on orthographic skills, with a smaller portion (12.5%) dedicated to grammar. A significant number (20.5%) only require students to provide an answer without deeper engagement with the riddle's linguistic or cultural context. This superficial treatment of riddles demonstrates a missed opportunity to enhance linguoculturological understanding. The limited and often simplistic use of riddles in current educational materials reveals a significant potential for pedagogical improvement. The study concludes that the current methods fail to fully capitalize on the rich cultural and linguistic possibilities of riddles, which are often reduced to rote exercises in spelling or grammar rather than opportunities for deeper learning.

The core of the article proposes a new methodology for teaching riddles in primary school Russian language classes. This method centers on the dialogic principle, facilitating interactive learning and promoting intercultural dialogue. The approach suggests teaching riddles not only in Russian but also encouraging students to find or recall equivalent riddles in their native languages or in other languages they study (such as English), then facilitating the translation and comparison between different language versions. This promotes intercultural understanding and expands linguistic awareness. The process involves stages of engagement with the riddle – guessing the meaning of the riddle, stage of reflection where students express their understanding of the metaphor, and finally, a stage of creative project, for example writing a composition or illustrating the riddle in a way that depicts the realia of the time the riddle was composed. This method integrates language learning with cultural exploration, fostering a richer and more meaningful learning experience. The suggested approach directly contrasts with the current limited and superficial usage of riddles within the current curriculum.

This section further elaborates on the importance of the dialogic principle in teaching Russian language and culture. This approach provides opportunities for students to learn about both Russian and other cultures through dialogues. It involves students from various cultural backgrounds working together, interacting with each other and the teacher in a more dynamic and engaging way. This approach moves beyond simply presenting linguistic information to fostering a deeper understanding of the connection between language and culture. It is proposed to use riddles from different languages, allowing for cross-cultural comparisons and translation activities. This strategy utilizes the multilingual context of classrooms in Russia to enrich the understanding of both the target language (Russian) and the students’ own languages, deepening their cultural understanding and comparative linguistic skills. The example of comparing English and Russian riddles about the sun and moon illustrates how this concept can be implemented in practice.

This section concludes that the proposed methodology for teaching riddles effectively fosters linguoculturological knowledge. By using riddles with metaphors as the central constructive element, the method highlights the cultural and national specificity embedded within language. This targeted approach, utilizing riddles as an optimal medium for primary school students, achieves both subjective and metasubjective results. The methodology integrates linguistic and cultural learning, developing not only subject-specific knowledge but also students' universal teaching activities and personal growth. This holistic approach to education goes beyond simply delivering information to cultivate a deeper understanding of language within its cultural context, leading to more well-rounded and engaged learners. The method addresses the limitations of the current approach and proposes a more effective method to achieve the overall goal of developing linguoculturological competence.

This section details the methodology used to assess the spiritual and moral qualities of students. The study focused on comparing indicators of goodness and evil among students of Russian and Tatar nationalities. The researchers used statistical comparison of average group indicators to determine the level of goodness development. A key technique employed was the "spiritual differential" method, which allowed for a detailed analysis of specific qualities such as spiritual beauty (SB). This method enabled the researchers to examine the interrelationships between various spiritual and moral qualities. The data analysis involved identifying correlations between different factors (SB, GN, SA, PT, etc.) to understand the relationships among spiritual beauty, good nature, spiritual activity, and aspiration to truth. Popov (2002) is referenced as providing a framework for understanding the major characteristics of human existence. The study relied on self-assessment data from the students themselves, providing insights into their own perceptions of their spiritual and moral qualities. This self-assessment approach allowed for the gathering of subjective qualitative data.

A central finding of the study centers on the high level of "spiritual beauty" (SB) observed in both Russian and Tatar student groups. The analysis revealed positive correlations between SB and factors like good nature (GN), nobility (Nb), and modesty (Md). This suggests that students possessing spiritual beauty also exhibit traits of kindness, generosity, and humility. Conversely, the study identified negative correlations between SB and spiritual activity (SA), aspiration to truth (PT), and courage (Cr), indicating that an excessive focus on outward displays of spirituality can sometimes detract from inner qualities. The high level of SB is seen as a balance between goodness and evil, highlighting the importance of inner values over outward appearances. The researchers use correlation coefficients (e.g., 0.53 at r=0.001) to quantitatively express the strength and significance of the relationships observed between different spiritual and moral qualities.

The analysis extends beyond the broad assessment of spiritual beauty to explore several specific spiritual and moral qualities. Both Russian and Tatar students were characterized as peaceful and compliant, with a capacity to foster tranquility and resolve conflicts. Spiritual independence (SI), characterized by freedom from material desires and ambition, was also prominent. Students in both groups also showed a desire for justice, fairness, and adherence to rules of decency (Rg). Additional qualities like kindness, helpfulness, and philanthropy (In) were observed, though qualities like truthfulness (Tf), sympathy and compassion (Wk), and sincere belonging (PH) were found to be less pronounced. The presence of qualities like "persecution" (Pr), reflecting potential despair and pessimism, highlights the complexities and potential for imbalances in the development of spiritual and moral qualities.

This section focuses on the correlation analysis conducted among the observed indicators. Significant relationships were found between the levels of Goodness (G), Evil (E), and the combined measure of Goodness and Evil (GE). These relationships were further explored by analyzing how indicators of Goodness and Evil affected other spiritual and moral qualities. For instance, average levels of Evil were found to correlate with lower levels of sympathy and compassion. This highlights the complex interplay between various aspects of one’s spiritual and moral make-up. Positive correlations are shown between spiritual independence (SI) and both Goodness and Evil. Negative correlations indicated that qualities like frankness and sincerity are associated with nobility, modesty, and resilience. A positive correlation between GE and indicators like modesty and endurance indicates that these qualities can contribute to peacefulness and compliance. The analysis shows that while having both goodness and evil doesn't necessarily reduce a person’s spiritual development, it does suggest a potential complexity in their character that needs consideration.

The study concludes by characterizing the spiritual and moral qualities of the students. Both Russian and Tatar students were found to demonstrate a balanced development of goodness and evil, with a strong presence of spiritual beauty. The research highlights the importance of internal qualities, such as honesty and compassion, in the development of a well-rounded personality. Various correlations between different qualities are discussed, providing a richer understanding of how these traits interact and shape an individual’s moral and spiritual landscape. This research provides valuable insights into the development of spiritual and moral qualities in students, potentially guiding educators in designing strategies to promote moral growth and wellbeing, and emphasizing the importance of a balanced development of spiritual and moral qualities. The authors note that having both goodness and evil can create a balance in a person's overall spiritual character.

This research explores the pedagogical potential of information and communication technologies (ICT) in elementary school settings within the context of a dynamically evolving modern society. The study acknowledges that modern society places new demands on education, emphasizing student qualities like active participation, sociability, self-directed learning, and teamwork. Traditional education is deemed insufficient to meet these evolving requirements due to its passive nature. The research aims to uncover the pedagogical potential of an enriched ICT-based learning environment to enhance the learning and research activities of younger pupils. The study focuses on the development of research skills in elementary school children, in particular how ICT tools might facilitate these developments. The study was conducted in Tatarstan, Russia, involving three schools: two general education schools and one gymnasium, with a total of 270 participants. The study sought to determine whether the integration of ICT into the elementary school curriculum can significantly improve learning outcomes and support research-oriented activities.

The research employed a qualitative inquiry-diagnostic method which involved a combination of observational techniques, questionnaires, and testing. This mixed-methods approach allowed for both quantitative and qualitative data collection, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The researchers collected data through direct observation, administering questionnaires, and conducting assessments to gauge the students’ understanding and skill development. This multi-faceted approach provided a rich dataset which allowed the researchers to make more detailed inferences. The data collected was analyzed to evaluate research skills development among students engaged in learning activities that utilized ICT tools. The primary goal was to examine the effectiveness of the ICT-enhanced learning environment and how it impacted the research skills of the participating students.

The research findings demonstrate the significant pedagogical potential of incorporating ICT into the elementary school educational environment. Analysis of the collected data revealed that the effective use of informational and communicational technologies can enhance the quality of pupils' training considerably, with increases of up to 20-40% reported. Moreover, these technologies demonstrated a positive effect on knowledge retention, improving knowledge durability by 10-20%. The study found that the highest impact (up to 40%) was observed when pupils engaged in research activities that utilized the acquired knowledge. This signifies that active learning and application of knowledge are key factors in maximizing the benefits of ICT integration. This implies that designing curricula that foster active inquiry and problem-solving using ICT tools is crucial to optimize learning outcomes. The study was conducted in Tatarstan, Russia involving 270 pupils and teachers across three schools to explore the potential of ICT to enhance research skills amongst younger pupils in the region.

This section critiques the limitations of traditional assessment methods in primary education, particularly the subjectivity inherent in the standard 5-point grading system. The authors argue that this system often lacks clear criteria, leading to inconsistencies and a lack of meaningful feedback for students. The practice of ranking students based solely on numerical scores is criticized for potentially undermining intrinsic motivation; students might focus more on achieving a high grade rather than a genuine understanding of the subject matter. The authors cite Boyl & Charles (2012) on the limitations of a one-size-fits-all approach to assessment. Malova (2009) and Syromolotov (1999) are also referenced, highlighting the subjectivity and relativity inherent in teacher-assigned grades, often leading to conflict and mistrust between teachers and students. The section sets the stage for the introduction of alternative assessment methods that aim to address these limitations.

This section introduces criterial self-evaluation and inter-evaluation as alternative assessment approaches for primary schools. The authors argue these methods offer several advantages over traditional grading systems. The research utilized testing and monitoring of learner performance to identify both benefits and drawbacks of these non-standard methods. The research emphasizes that the increased motivation and improved performance observed among students employing these methods directly support their efficacy. The study reveals the key features of organizing the educational process using these assessment methods. The authors aim to highlight the positive effects of these new methods. The authors note that the traditional 5-point system is not conducive to building cooperative relationships, and they suggest a move to more detailed and nuanced assessment approaches, possibly utilizing an expanded point scale (8-12 points) as proposed by Bespalko (1989) and Goreslavsky (1990).

The research explores the implementation and observed benefits of criterial self-evaluation and inter-evaluation in primary school settings. It describes how these non-standard methods were incorporated into the educational process, revealing the unique organizational strategies used. The study focuses on how to effectively implement these methods, demonstrating the value of detailed, objective feedback to enhance student understanding and development. The key benefit emphasized is the increased motivation and improved performance shown by the students. The authors detail how these methods create a more positive learning environment that facilitates self-reflection and peer interaction. This contrasts with the negative effects of the traditional grading systems, which often lead to competition and a focus on grades over genuine learning. The authors suggest that the detailed, criterial feedback of self and peer-evaluation methods promotes a more constructive and collaborative classroom dynamic. The content is intended for use by primary school teachers and higher education instructors.

This section establishes the importance of reading comprehension in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) research and teaching. It highlights the extensive research on reading skills within the fields of ESL and ELT, connecting it to psychological concepts like perception, recognition, and concept mapping. The authors cite Amiri & Maftoon (2010), Anastasiou & Griva (2009), and Nuttall (1996) as examples of relevant research. Reading comprehension is presented as a vital skill across various educational levels and subject areas. Cornoldi and Oakhill (2001) are quoted, emphasizing the pervasive role of reading in daily life and its importance in acquiring knowledge and navigating the world. This section sets the stage for investigating a specific aspect of reading comprehension: the relationship between text difficulty and comprehension success.

The section highlights the inconsistencies in previous research regarding the impact of text difficulty on L2 reading comprehension. While Day and Bamford (2002) emphasize the importance of matching reading materials to students' linguistic capabilities, the authors note that existing research hasn't established a clear relationship between text difficulty and comprehension outcomes across different proficiency levels. This highlights a gap in the research. Earlier studies failed to provide a clear index of text difficulty appropriate for various proficiency levels. This makes it challenging for instructors to select suitable reading materials for their students. The research by Chiang (2015) indicated that varied text difficulty levels did not significantly affect reading comprehension. However, other research (Khansir and Darvishi, 2014) shows that task complexity does impact performance, suggesting that the relationship between text difficulty and comprehension is far more nuanced than previously assumed.

This section introduces the study's aim to investigate the effects of varying text difficulty on L2 reading comprehension. The study's focus on identifying an appropriate text difficulty index for learners at high, medium, and low English proficiency levels addresses the inconsistencies found in prior research. Matching text difficulty to learner proficiency is crucial for effective vocabulary acquisition and content understanding. The study's research question implicitly focuses on whether there is a significant correlation between text difficulty matched to learner level and successful comprehension outcomes. This section positions the current research within the context of existing literature, highlighting the need for a more definitive understanding of how text difficulty impacts L2 reading comprehension and proposing a method to more accurately define the appropriate level of text difficulty for students of various proficiency levels.

This study employed a qualitative descriptive research design to investigate the effectiveness of a blended learning strategy in teaching English to law students. The research was conducted at Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch. The study involved 150 law students (male and female) aged 20-50 and 5 ESP (English for Specific Purposes) course instructors. This provided a substantial sample size for analyzing the impact of blended learning on student engagement and achievement. The age range of the participants reflects a diverse student population. The inclusion of instructors in the assessment allows for a multi-perspective analysis of the teaching method.

The study assessed both class attitude and achievement to evaluate the effectiveness of the blended learning strategy. Class attitude was measured by distributing questionnaires to both students and instructors during classes. This provided data on the students’ perceptions and experiences with this learning model. This dual approach captures student and instructor perceptions on the benefits and drawbacks of the blended learning strategy. Class achievement was evaluated through ongoing observations throughout the semester, utilizing Brown’s Class Observation Strategy. This longitudinal approach provided a richer understanding of the impact of blended learning on student progress, offering insights into the evolving dynamics of student learning. This ensures a more holistic assessment than relying solely on a single data point such as final exam grades.

Descriptive analysis of the data revealed significant positive effects of the blended learning strategy compared to traditional teaching methods. The results indicated that students in the blended learning environment made progress comparable to those in traditional settings, showing that this method can be just as effective as traditional methods. Specifically, the study highlighted the effectiveness of adaptive computer use for learning vocabulary, suggesting that technology-enhanced learning resources can be particularly beneficial for vocabulary acquisition. The findings support the potential of blended learning to improve student learning outcomes in English language instruction for law students. The study indicates the potential to improve the educational process through the use of blended learning, specifically noting the benefits of adaptive computer use in vocabulary acquisition.

This section discusses the growing importance of blended learning in the context of technological advancements since the 1990s. The increased integration of web-based resources into instructional practices (Rodriguez et al., 2005) is highlighted as a major driver of this trend. The study notes that the development of information technology and telecommunications has enabled online courses to incorporate elements of face-to-face instruction, including the use of multimedia, audio, and video. The authors cite Graham (2006) on the increasing recognition of blended learning as a top educational trend. Young (2002) is also cited, suggesting a potential for widespread adoption of blended learning models in higher education. This establishes the broader context of the study and the rationale for examining its effectiveness among law students.

The study concludes by emphasizing the potential of blended learning to expand learning opportunities. The findings support the positive effects of blended learning on student achievement and engagement, indicating it can be an effective approach to teaching English to law students. The results show that the blended learning model offers a valuable way to combine in-class teaching with online learning, particularly in vocabulary acquisition. The study acknowledges the increasing role of technology in education and highlights the potential of blended learning to leverage the benefits of technology to improve learning outcomes and expand access to educational resources. The study's findings suggest that blended learning has potential to positively impact various aspects of language education, but more research might be needed to clarify particular challenges or benefits depending on the specific subject.

This section lays the groundwork for the study by reviewing existing theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). It mentions prominent theories such as Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar and the behaviorist approach, highlighting the various perspectives on how language is learned and the factors influencing success. The behaviorist approach, dominant in American education during the 1950s and 60s, is contrasted with Chomsky's focus on innate language learning capabilities. The limitations of the behaviorist approach, which views learners as passive recipients of knowledge, are discussed, referencing the work of John Dewey and Jean Piaget, who emphasized learners' active role in knowledge construction. The emergence of sociocultural theory, highlighting the influence of social and cultural context on learning (Vygotsky, 1978), is also presented. This sets the stage for examining how individual factors, such as self-efficacy and motivation, interact with the learning process.

This section focuses on the key roles of motivation and self-efficacy in second language learning. Motivation is identified as a crucial factor influencing language learning success, citing research by Crookes & Schmidt (1991), Dörnyei (1994), Ellis (1994), and Oxford & Shearin (1994). Motivation is described as driving effort and persistence in learning tasks, two critical components of self-efficacy. Pintrich and Schunk (1996) define motivation as the process initiating and sustaining goal-directed activity. While Gardner (1985) distinguished goal orientation from motivation, the interconnectedness between motivation and goal-directedness is acknowledged. The section introduces the concept of self-efficacy, drawing on Bandura's work (1977, 1997), defining it as learners' beliefs about their ability to learn or perform language tasks. Self-efficacy is highlighted as influencing learners' motivation, thoughts, feelings, and actions (Pajares, 2002).

This section introduces Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) as a framework for understanding motivation and self-regulation in learning. The evolution of SCT from Social Learning Theory is traced, highlighting the contributions of Miller and Dollard (1941) and Bandura and Walters (1963). Bandura's (1977, 1986) work on self-efficacy is central, emphasizing its role in shaping learners' beliefs about their capabilities, anticipated outcomes, goal setting, and activity planning. SCT is presented as emphasizing the cognitive aspects of motivation, highlighting learners' ability to reflect on their actions and shape their learning environments (Pajares, 2002, 2006; Zimmerman, 2006). The section differentiates self-efficacy from self-concept and self-esteem, stressing its task-specific nature and its strong predictive power in influencing behavior and goal attainment (Bandura, 1997). This sets the stage for examining the influence of self-efficacy on various aspects of second language learning.

This section presents research findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, language learning strategies, and language ability. Studies such as Poyrazli and Grahame (2007), Leclair et al. (2009), and Wong (2005) are cited, demonstrating the link between high self-efficacy and lower stress levels, increased cultural adjustment, and greater use of learning strategies. Other research, including Gahungu (2007) and Magogwe and Oliver (2007), highlight the positive relationship between language learning strategies, self-efficacy, and language ability. These studies emphasize the significance of active learner engagement and the benefits of explicit strategy instruction. Tilfalioglu and Cinkara (2009) explored the connection between self-efficacy and English proficiency levels, finding a positive correlation. Naseri and Zaferanieh (2012) also found a strong positive correlation between self-efficacy and improvements in reading comprehension skills, along with the use of cognitive, metacognitive, compensatory, and testing strategies.

This section summarizes the interplay between self-efficacy, motivation, and performance in second language acquisition. The review of existing SLA theories and empirical research emphasizes the crucial role of learner beliefs and learning strategies. The discussion highlights how learners' self-perceptions of ability (self-efficacy) significantly influence their motivation to learn and ultimately their performance. The findings suggest that fostering self-efficacy through effective instruction, including explicit teaching of language learning strategies, is key to improving language learning outcomes. The importance of teacher support, emphasizing skill development and fostering learner optimism, is also emphasized. This concludes the review and discussion of the interaction between self-efficacy, motivation, and performance in SLA.