Sport Fan Travel: Transtheoretical Model

The research begins by highlighting the significant contribution of transportation to the carbon emissions associated with leisure events. Studies such as Bottrill et al. (2009) and Harvey (2009) demonstrate that transportation is the largest source of emissions for these events. Further research by Collins et al. (2007, 2012) emphasizes the substantial environmental impact of visitor travel, citing examples like the FA Cup and the Tour de France, where visitor travel accounted for a considerable portion of the event's ecological footprint. The increasing atmospheric emissions from road traffic, and their contribution to climate change, are also noted (Gardner & Abraham, 2008; May, 2013; Borgstede et al., 2013). A notable trend is the projected increase in travel for social and leisure activities (Ettema & Schwanen, 2012; Holden & Linnerud, 2011; Valek et al.). However, the lack of research on travel behavior in event settings and the reasons behind travel choices is a major concern. This research gap leads to inaccurate assumptions and inappropriate transport policies at regional and national levels (House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee, 2011; May, 2013; Borgstede et al., 2013). This study aims to address this gap by investigating sport fan travel behavior and its relation to sustainable tourism.

This exploratory study focuses on three key objectives: first, to determine the current travel behaviour of fans attending sporting events; second, to assess their willingness to change their travel habits; and third, to explore the motivations behind their current travel choices. The research utilizes the Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM) as a framework to understand and synthesize these behavioral aspects. Two hypotheses are formulated: H1o proposes that sport fans in different stages of change do not vary significantly in their processes of change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance; while H1a suggests the opposite—that there is a variance in these factors across different stages of change, aligning with the TTM theory. The choice of the TTM is justified by its integrative and comprehensive nature, drawing from various psychotherapy and behavior change methodologies (Prochaska & Norcross, 2007). The TTM's ability to address both individual and group change, as well as its recognition of the diverse stages of change an individual or group may experience, makes it a suitable model for this research focused on travel behaviour change and sustainable tourism within the sport fan community. The model's constructs of stages and processes of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy are central to the study's analysis.

This study employed a cross-sectional design, focusing on a convenience sample of sport fans. Researchers gained access to a UK-based professional Rugby League team and its stadium. Data collection occurred during three home matches between March and May 2014. Only home team supporters were included in the sample (more frequent stadium attendees). To maximize participation, a prize draw incentive was offered. A total of 192 usable surveys were collected. The sample comprised primarily males (59%), with nearly 30% aged 35-44. Around 29% of participants traveled over 16 miles to the stadium, with 25.5% taking 26-35 minutes to reach the venue. Travel patterns indicated that 73% of participants traveled with up to three people, while 20% traveled with 4-6 people. Notably, over half (50.9%) of the participants identified themselves as the main driver, highlighting the focus on car use in the study's analysis of travel behaviour. The majority (65%) were full-time employed, with 12.5% being part-time employed. This demographic information is important for understanding the context of the sport fan travel behaviour being studied.

The core data collection method was a self-reporting questionnaire designed around the four constructs of the Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM). These constructs are: Stages of Change (SoC), Processes of Change (PoC), Self-Efficacy, and Decisional Balance. The questionnaire incorporated validated and reliable measures from existing research, ensuring the study’s methodological rigor. Items were adapted and contextualized to reflect the specific behaviour of traveling to the stadium, particularly driving to the stadium. For example, items related to travel behaviour in the precontemplation stage might include statements like, “As far as I'm concerned, there is nothing wrong with the way I get to the stadium”, whereas contemplation stage items might include, “I know I should look into alternatives to get to the stadium”. A 5-point Likert scale was used to gauge agreement. The Processes of Change section used a 20-item questionnaire based on Prochaska et al.'s (1988) work on smoking cessation, contextualized for stadium travel (e.g., Counter-conditioning, Social Liberation). The Decisional Balance section (10 items) was adapted from Janis and Mann (1977), incorporating ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ related to travel choices, also using a 5-point Likert scale. This meticulous design aimed to accurately capture the nuances of sport fan travel behaviour within the framework of the TTM.

The analysis of the collected data involved several statistical techniques. The Stages of Change (SoC) were categorized using established cut-off scores (Precontemplation, Contemplation, Action, Maintenance), though the study highlights a disproportionate representation within the precontemplation stage (92%). Chi-square tests examined relationships between SoC and factors like gender, season ticket holder status, and having dependents. For analyses where assumptions of parametric tests were violated, a Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance was employed, consistent with recommendations for small samples. Analysis of Processes of Change (PoC) employed means and correlations to explore relationships with SoC. ANOVAs were initially planned for Self-Efficacy, but due to violations of homogeneity of variance, Kruskal-Wallis tests were used instead. The analysis of decisional balance used independent-samples t-tests to compare the mean scores of ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ items across the SoC categories. This comprehensive approach, incorporating both parametric and non-parametric methods, aimed to robustly analyze the complex interplay of factors influencing sport fan travel behavior and test the applicability of the TTM framework in this context.

Analysis of the Stages of Change (SoC) revealed a surprising finding: 92% of participants were categorized as precontemplators within the Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM) framework. This means the vast majority did not perceive their current travel behaviour (primarily driving to the stadium) as problematic. Only 7.5% fell into the contemplation stage. The study notes that the very high percentage of precontemplators may be due to the arbitrary nature of the cut-off scores used for categorization or a potential rejection of the notion that driving is inherently a 'problem behavior' in this context. The relatively low numbers in the Action and Maintenance stages meant that analysis of these categories was not conducted. This challenges the initial assumptions about how the TTM would apply to this specific context of sport fan travel. Further analysis was thus required to understand whether this high percentage of precontemplators truly reflected their attitudes or instead pointed to limitations in applying this model to the nuances of attending sporting events. The research indicates that the high number of precontemplators may need further investigation to determine if it is the model or the sample's behaviour that is being reflected.

The analysis of Processes of Change (PoC) showed some alignment with the TTM for contemplators, with Social Liberation items showing expected prevalence. However, high mean scores were observed for Helping Relationships (m=3.1) and Social Liberation (m=3.1) even within the precontemplation stage. This suggests a strong emphasis on social connection and consideration for others, a pattern typically seen in later stages of change according to the TTM. For instance, high scores on items like Reinforcement Management (reward sought after by others), Self-Liberation (commitment to oneself and others), and Counter-Conditioning (seeking travel alternatives) were observed amongst precontemplators, contrasting with the established model. Correlations were explored between Stages of Change and PoC scores; findings indicated a medium effect size (r) suggesting a positive relationship between higher Stages of Change scores and higher experiential and behavioral Processes of Change scores. This unexpected pattern suggests a need to consider refining the TTM's applicability to this particular population and behaviour, particularly regarding the significance of social relationships in influencing travel behaviour in the early stages of change. The importance of this relationship within the group is highlighted.

The results related to self-efficacy largely supported the predictions of the Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM). Analysis revealed a clear pattern: self-efficacy scores increased as participants progressed through the Stages of Change (SoC). This means that confidence levels in changing travel behavior rose as individuals moved from precontemplation to contemplation. This is consistent with the TTM's theoretical framework, indicating that the model's constructs successfully capture this aspect of the sport fan travel behavior. Initially, an ANOVA was considered, but due to violations of homogeneity of variance, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance was used. This robust approach, despite not being ideal for large samples, provided valuable insights into the relationship between self-efficacy and the Stages of Change, confirming a key element of the TTM’s predictive power in this study. The consistent increase in confidence in abstaining from the current behaviour as the SoC increased validates this particular aspect of the model.

The analysis of decisional balance yielded results that partially contradicted the TTM's predictions. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to examine the differences in the mean scores of 'pros' and 'cons' across the Stages of Change (SoC). The results showed no significant difference in the mean scores of pros and cons across the SoC. This finding contrasts with the TTM, which typically predicts a 'crossover' point between contemplation and action, where the perceived pros of changing behavior outweigh the cons. The lack of significant difference may suggest that the simplistic 'pros and cons' framework may not adequately capture the complexity of travel decisions related to attending a sport event. The study suggests that other factors, such as perceived control, social acceptance of driving, and the intricate social and political considerations surrounding travel mode choice (as discussed by Green (2008)), might overshadow the influence of decisional balance on travel behaviour change within this population. The complex factors impacting the decisions of sport fans are highlighted by these results.

The study's conclusions highlight the need for a nuanced understanding of the Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM)'s application to sport fan travel behavior. While the model’s predictions regarding self-efficacy were largely supported—confidence in changing behavior increased with progression through the Stages of Change (SoC)—the decisional balance findings challenged theoretical expectations. The lack of a significant 'crossover' effect between contemplation and action stages suggests that the model may not fully account for the complexities of travel mode choice in this context. The dominance of precontemplation amongst participants, coupled with the unexpected prevalence of pro-social behaviours even in the early stages of change, suggests the importance of considering the strong social bonds within the fan group. The study suggests that the strong social connections and group identity amongst sport fans may influence their travel behavior in ways not fully captured by the standard TTM framework. The value placed on shared experiences and group cohesion may outweigh individual considerations of personal environmental impact, challenging the model's straightforward application. This indicates that future applications of the TTM in similar contexts should account for this important social dimension.

Several limitations of the study are acknowledged, impacting the generalizability of the findings. The small sample size, particularly the low representation in the Action and Maintenance Stages of Change (SoC), restricts the depth of analysis possible. This sample size limitation could lead to underestimation or overestimation of effects. The reliance on self-reporting questionnaires also introduces potential biases, particularly given the subjective nature of some items related to personal losses and gains for oneself and significant others. The study highlights that the interpretation of such nuanced items may vary between individuals. Future research should consider using alternative data collection methods, such as motivational interviewing, to gain more detailed and participant-led insights. Further investigation is needed into the choice of case study (Rugby League home matches). Factors such as the infrequent nature of match days, stadium location, and game timing may have constrained participants' ability to adopt alternative travel methods, suggesting the travel behaviour observed might be context-specific. Addressing these limitations would improve the robustness and applicability of future research examining sport fan travel behavior and the potential for interventions promoting sustainable travel choices and sustainable tourism.