Play-Based Learning: A Review

This section posits that the innate drive to play in young humans and animals offers a significant evolutionary advantage. The text argues that if playful behaviors didn't confer survival benefits, animals engaging in play wouldn't have passed on their genes. Developmental psychologists and ethologists generally believe play provides essential practice for skills used in adulthood, enhancing the survival potential of both the individual and their offspring. Bruner (1976) powerfully emphasizes this, stating, ‘animals do not play because they are young, but they have their youth because they must play.’ The complexity of play is linked to the complexity of the adult society; the more complex the society, the longer the developmental period and the more intricate the play activities. Humans, with their highly complex social structures, exhibit the most elaborate forms of play, indicating that play is a crucial vehicle for learning and skill development.

This section delves into contrasting theories regarding the purpose of play. Energy regulation theories propose play serves either to expend excess energy ('letting off steam,' rooted in Aristotle's concept of catharsis and Schiller's definition of play as 'aimless expenditure of exuberant energy') or to restore energy depleted through work (Lazarus' opposing view). Herbert Spencer (1820-1895), applying Darwinian evolutionary theory, suggested that more highly evolved animals possess more 'surplus energy,' leading to more complex play. While this theory aligns with the observation that mammals, particularly primates, exhibit more extended and complex play than birds, the text notes that the relationship isn't as straightforward, given the complexities of brain physiology across different species. The debate highlights differing perspectives on the biological basis and function of play, ranging from energy expenditure to energy replenishment.

This section introduces G. Stanley Hall's (1920) recapitulation theory, which proposes that childhood development mirrors the evolutionary path of humanity. Hall suggests play helps children work through primitive instincts from earlier evolutionary stages, instincts that are less relevant to modern civilized life. Hall's proposed stages follow an evolutionary progression: animal, savage, tribal society, and modern society. However, the section critiques this theory, pointing out that Western societies are not inherently more 'evolved' than others. The discussion includes a case study using William Golding's 'Lord of the Flies' (1954) as a potential example of unchecked play leading to primitive behavior, although the connection is presented cautiously as an interpretation rather than a definitive validation of Hall’s theory. This section highlights the limitations and complexities of applying evolutionary theory directly to understanding children's play.

This section explores the psychoanalytic perspective on play, originating with Sigmund Freud (1854-1938). Freud highlighted the significant role of play in children's emotional development, reintroducing the concept of catharsis. He believed play allowed children to release negative emotions associated with traumatic events. Anna Freud, Sigmund's daughter, further developed Freudian play therapy, employing various play materials (dolls, sand, water, art supplies) to help children process traumatic experiences by breaking down memories into smaller, manageable segments. The widespread use of play therapy following World War II to assist children traumatized by the war in Nazi-occupied Europe is cited as an example of its practical application and effectiveness in addressing emotional distress through play. The section emphasizes the therapeutic potential of play in aiding emotional regulation and healing.

This section presents Berlyne's (1960) arousal modulation theory, proposing that play stems from a central nervous system drive to maintain optimal arousal levels. Ellis (1973) added that children use play to increase stimulation and arousal. Berlyne's model suggests children respond to environments to increase arousal, while Ellis argues children actively create arousal through their actions. This theory is linked to current discussions about the balance of boredom and over-stimulation in childhood. The text explores the question of whether reducing boredom through constant stimulation might hinder the development of children's self-directed activities and their ability to regulate their own arousal levels. Corsaro (1997) further contributes to this debate by suggesting that modern Western societies increasingly dictate children's time, leading to a potential 'colonization' of childhood by adults, limiting opportunities for self-regulated play and development.

This section introduces Gregory Bateson's (1955) metacommunicative theory, which posits that in pretend play, children operate on two levels simultaneously: within the make-believe scene and in the real world. Garvey (1977) coined the term 'break frame' to describe how children exit their pretend scenarios to address problems or disagreements, then return. This illustrates that children learn not only about the roles they play but also about the very concept of role-playing and its relationship to reality. The concept of 'break frame' demonstrates children’s abilities to manage complexity, transition between different levels of reality, and resolve conflicts constructively within their play. This highlights the sophisticated cognitive and social-emotional skills developed through pretend and role-playing.

This section highlights the contributions of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) and Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) to understanding cognitive development through play. The text emphasizes how learning happens gradually, building upon previous knowledge over time, ultimately leading to a comprehensive 'cognitive map' of the world. The example of learning about gravity versus road safety demonstrates how experiential learning shapes understanding of the world. Children’s understanding of concepts like Santa Claus evolves as their cognitive abilities and world knowledge grow, illustrating Piaget's concept of equilibration. The text also mentions the importance of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where children learn with the guidance of adults or more capable peers. Practical activities, such as Lego building or craft projects, can illustrate how children's learning and collaboration are enhanced within their ZPD.

This section discusses the evolving landscape of early childhood education in the UK, particularly the increasing emphasis on play-based learning. The document notes the emergence of the Early Years Professional (EYP) role, a position created with government funding to lead and transform play-based practices. The EYP's function is likened to that of Scandinavian 'Pedagogues,' who focus on holistic child development—body, mind, and emotions—within a specific cultural and historical context. The initial focus for British EYPs, as set by the Department for Children, Families, and Schools (DCFS), is on play-based learning. The Children's Plan (2007), outlining the Brown New Labour government's aspirations for children's services from 2008-2020, further supports this shift. This illustrates a significant policy shift toward recognizing the crucial role of play in the early years curriculum and a dedicated professional role focused on implementing this approach.

This section emphasizes the need for a well-structured play-based curriculum and pedagogy. The text argues that educators must provide numerous opportunities for children to engage in play, both individually and collaboratively, with these opportunities carefully planned for optimal learning. Educators are expected to analyze the learning potential within these play activities, actively participating while observing and assessing children's progress. This process should not preclude fun and enjoyment, as these are essential elements of effective learning. The curriculum should cater to individual children's needs, and educators need to utilize a structured cycle: planning, organization, implementation, assessment, and evaluation. Riley (2003) stresses the importance of a holistic curriculum understanding, not only in the Foundation Stage but also in Key Stage 1, suggesting developmentally appropriate learning experiences across all curriculum areas.

This section explores effective practice in play-based settings, highlighting the importance of ongoing observation and reflective practice. A case study features a nursery nurse working in an inner-city school with a diverse student population, many learning English as an additional language. The nursery prioritizes free play upon arrival, which is evaluated through observation to determine its effectiveness in meeting children’s needs. The team's findings show that children engaged in focused play, selecting varied experiences, concentrating effectively, participating in cooperative play, and using both their home language and English. This shows how educators use play to meet early learning goals. The overall message is that educators need to not only implement play-based learning effectively but also to demonstrate its positive impact on children's learning, requiring ongoing analysis and reflective practice.

This section addresses challenges and misconceptions regarding play-based learning. The text acknowledges that some educators, particularly those working with older children, undervalue play. It further highlights that some practitioners lack confidence in implementing play-based pedagogy and fail to understand children's active involvement in their own learning. The section points out that Siraj-Blatchford et al. (2002) found the richest play experiences occur in nursery settings, suggesting that schools should study and implement best practices from these environments. The section also notes that the Early Years Foundation Stage promotes a play-based curriculum, although the broader primary review (2007) omits the word 'play' entirely from its themes. Despite this omission, local education authorities are encouraging play-based pedagogy, highlighting an ongoing push to more fully integrate play into the educational experience.

This section offers a case study illustrating the power of rich, imaginative learning environments in promoting play-based learning. Brock's (1999) research on an 'Enchanted Forest' setting for children aged 5-8 demonstrates how children gained curriculum knowledge through practical experiences in a holistic dramatic environment. The children played, explored, and problem-solved collaboratively, primarily focusing on science but also gaining literacy, technology, geography, and artistic skills. The study shows how this approach not only facilitated meaningful understanding of complex concepts but also provided an enjoyable and memorable experience for the children. Even years later, children retained their knowledge. This highlights the effectiveness of creating engaging, imaginative play spaces to enhance learning and emphasizes that play and enjoyment can be integral to successful education.

This section introduces playwork as a profession focused on children's learning and development through play. It emphasizes that playwork aims to identify and remove obstacles to the play process and enrich children's play environments. Playwork is defined as a profession where play is the primary tool for correcting developmental imbalances (Brown and Webb, 2002). The scope of playwork is broad, ranging from simple after-school clubs to complex interventions for children with severe play deprivation. The section sets the stage by defining playwork and its crucial role in supporting children's healthy development, especially in contexts where access to play is limited or compromised. The examples highlight the diverse settings where playwork takes place and the varied ways in which it addresses developmental needs.

This section uses the example of an adventure playground to illustrate key playwork principles. Children used scrap materials to build their own play structures, often with fundamental flaws, such as poorly placed nails and unstable structures. Importantly, these imperfections didn't deter the children; they focused on the process of construction rather than the finished product. This observation aligns with Sylva et al.'s (1976) suggestion that, in play, the means (process) are often more important than the ends (product). The example demonstrates that children’s play is often about the experience of creation and experimentation, not solely about achieving a perfect outcome. The focus on the process of play highlights a key aspect of playwork’s philosophy, valuing the child's creative journey over the end result.

This section emphasizes the significance of accurately interpreting children's play cues and the importance of a non-judgmental approach. It discusses a case study involving Liliana, a visually impaired child. The text explains that initially overcoming preconceived notions about Liliana's capabilities was essential before engaging with her play. Fisher (2007)'s concept of 'negative capability,' a non-prejudicial, accepting stance, is presented as a crucial skill for playworkers. Else and Sturrock (1998) highlight the importance of accurate interpretation, emphasizing that misinterpretations can lead to childhood neuroses. The example of correctly interpreting Liliana’s cues as an invitation to repeat a song, and the lasting positive connection forged, underlines the power of respectful, nuanced interaction in playwork. This shows the importance of attuning to subtle signals and building trusting relationships.

This section provides a detailed case study of a 'Cardboard City' play session, analyzing the events from a playwork perspective. The key principle of children's freedom to choose their activities (PPSG, 2005) is highlighted, alongside the provision of a rich, loose parts environment (Nicholson, 1971). The children’s collaborative problem-solving, as they design and build their city, is linked to Pepler's (1982) observation that children's play mirrors adult problem-solving. The younger child’s initiative to create a ‘tramps on the streets’ theme demonstrates engagement with their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1976, 1978). The playworker's facilitation is analyzed, particularly their response to the children's request for a sharp knife. This decision highlights the importance of informal risk assessment, trust, and Bruner's (1976) concept of 'scaffolding.' This case study demonstrates playwork’s core principles in a real-world setting, showcasing the playworker's role in supporting children's initiative and development.

This concluding section summarizes the importance of offering real choices and flexibility within children's play experiences. The authors agree that play, whether individual or social, must provide genuine choices. Jarvis highlights the importance of free play for dealing with difficult social situations. Brock emphasizes stimulating play environments that enable children to initiate their own learning. Brown reinforces that play is essential for maintaining brain plasticity and adaptability. The example of Aimee, a child with a relentlessly scheduled life, demonstrates how play deprivation can negatively impact development. The section underscores the significant need for sufficient free play time to ensure children's healthy development, expressing concern about limitations on children's freedom and independence in contemporary Western societies.

This section critiques the pervasive time constraints in modern society, affecting both educational settings and home environments. The authors question whether this constant pressure to rush children through activities prioritizes completion over quality, achievement over deep understanding, and accomplishment over in-depth learning. Broadhead (2006) is cited, advocating for ample time for children's holistic development. The authors express concern that this societal pressure may teach children to value speed and superficial achievements over thoroughness and genuine understanding. This sets the context for arguing that sufficient unstructured time for play is crucial for healthy development, contrasting the current emphasis on efficiency and accomplishment with the need for a more holistic and child-centered approach to education and upbringing.

This section emphasizes the critical role of free play in children's lives, particularly self-directed activities. It challenges the common assumption that play experiences are only those freely chosen by the children themselves. It raises questions about the distinction between play and work, noting that adult-directed activities like painting or building with blocks can still have elements of play if they are engaging and enjoyable for the child. The section strongly supports children’s right to relax, play, and engage in a wide range of activities (Article 31, UN Rights of the Child). This right is presented as not just a matter of enjoyment, but also a fundamental aspect of cognitive and creative development. The section establishes the inherent value of free play as crucial for healthy development, contrasting the idea of play as simply 'fun' with its importance for cognitive growth and creative expression.

This section uses the case study of Aimee to illustrate the detrimental effects of play deprivation. Aimee's life is relentlessly timetabled and adult-directed. Her limited opportunities for unstructured play, coupled with a highly structured schedule, lead to difficulties during school holidays. Despite having many expensive toys, she frequently expresses boredom. The authors use Aimee's situation to emphasize the negative consequences of a lack of free play opportunities and self-directed activities. The case serves as a cautionary example, illustrating how restrictive schedules and adult-directed activities can negatively impact a child's ability to self-regulate, leading to behaviors like persistent boredom and difficulties in settling down. The implication is that this lack of free play could have lasting effects on Aimee's development and her capacity for independent thinking and self-direction.

This section focuses on defining play, highlighting the difficulties in creating universally accepted definitions. It mentions the common description of play as 'freely chosen, personally directed, and intrinsically motivated' (PPSG, 2005), a definition widely used among playworkers. The authors acknowledge that this definition is an idealization, and it doesn't apply to every instance of play. Sutton-Smith (1997) is cited to support this, emphasizing the difficulties in clearly distinguishing play from other activities. Despite the limitations of simple definitions, the section underscores the importance of playworkers recognizing and maximizing the positive outcomes of giving children wide freedom of choice, and control over their environment, noting this supports not only individual well-being but the survival of the species itself.