Human-Bear Conflict in Japan

The study begins by establishing a crucial distinction between lowland and upland communities in Japan and their differing relationships with the Asiatic black bear. Lowland areas, characterized by coastal plains and river basins, have historically been the centers of Japanese agriculture and urban development. In contrast, the interior upland and highland regions, dominated by forested mountains, maintained culturally, socially, politically, and economically isolated communities for centuries. These upland communities, especially in northeastern Japan, relied on subsistence lifestyles including hunting, fishing, and limited agriculture, fostering distinct regional cultures separate from the dominant lowland culture. This historical division significantly shapes contemporary perceptions of the bear; the study aims to highlight these continuing differences in how upland and lowland communities interact with and view the Asiatic black bear, influencing the nature of human-bear conflict and management strategies.

The research investigates the contemporary relationship between Japanese people and bears, focusing on prevalent human-bear conflict. This involves comparing and contrasting the Japanese experience with that of other countries, exploring the unique cultural, ecological, and socio-economic factors that contribute to these conflicts. The study also considers the human dimension of wildlife management and conservation, drawing on existing literature which highlights the importance of social acceptance alongside biological and environmental variables in successful conservation efforts. The Asiatic black bear, while omnivorous and not strictly predatory, shares characteristics with carnivores/predators (size, food requirements, range, and potential danger to humans), making existing research on carnivore management directly relevant to understanding human-bear relations in Japan. The increasing boundary-crossing between humans and animals in the modern world and the evolving redefinition of boundaries between humans and animals and culture and nature are also noted as influencing the research direction.

This section examines how human actions significantly contribute to creating circumstances leading to human-wildlife conflict, drawing on a survey by Reading and Millar (2000) on endangered species worldwide. The survey revealed that human actions, such as overhunting, depletion of natural food sources, and habitat destruction/fragmentation, are the primary causes of the decline of endangered carnivorous and omnivorous species. These factors are intensified in societies experiencing poverty, inequality, or instability. The study emphasizes that the costs of coexisting with wildlife are disproportionately borne by rural communities (especially in developing nations), highlighting the importance of public education and local support for conservation programs. The alienation of rural populations from decision-making processes surrounding conservation can lead to antagonism toward conservation efforts and the animals involved. The Red-crowned Crane is presented as a case study where traditional cultural value failed to prevent the species' near extinction, underscoring the limits of cultural significance in ensuring real-world conservation.

The study introduces the concept of the 'bear as a barometer,' viewing the 'bear problem' as a reflection of significant social issues in contemporary Japan, such as rural depopulation and the perceived alienation of rural society. Rural depopulation, particularly impacting remote upland villages, is identified as a crucial factor in wildlife pestilence, as these areas often have aging populations and reduced activity, increasing vulnerability to wildlife encounters. The post-war shift in Japanese forestry practices, marked by large-scale conifer plantation forestry which prioritized profit over environmental concerns, also played a significant role in habitat alteration and the increased incidence of human-bear conflict. The study also explores the potential for 'regional' approaches to bear management that draw on traditional ecological knowledge. The concept of the 'satoyama' as a buffer zone between human and wild spaces and its deterioration is discussed as a factor contributing to human-bear interactions. The research will examine whether regional approaches, informed by cultural heritage (e.g., the Tōhoku region's matagi hunting culture), could offer valuable insights for more effective wildlife management.

A striking feature of the research is the limited presence of the Asiatic black bear in mainstream Japanese cultural history. This contrasts sharply with the abundance of material concerning other animals, such as monkeys and foxes, which are deeply entrenched in Japanese folklore. A rudimentary database search revealed a significant disparity in the number of publications related to the Asiatic black bear compared to monkeys and foxes. While thousands of books and documents mention monkeys and foxes, only eight non-fiction books focus on the Asiatic black bear. This lack of cultural embeddedness is significant, suggesting the bear's relative absence from the dominant narrative of Japanese cultural identity. The reasons for this limited cultural significance are explored later in the study, considering the bear's habitat and the influence of external cultures.

To understand the bear's place in Japanese cultural history, particularly within upland communities, it's crucial to examine its role in Ainu culture. The brown bear held significant cultural importance for the Ainu, who not only hunted it for food and fur but also considered it a mountain deity (kimun kamui). This duality—the bear as both hunted resource and spiritual entity—was reconciled through the belief that bear gods visited the human world to offer their meat and fur as gifts. A rich body of Ainu folklore and ritual surrounds the bear, most notably the iyomante, or 'sending ceremony,' a ritual designed to return the bear's spirit to the spirit world for regeneration. The iyomante ceremonies, performed annually before the hunting season, provide insight into the complex and nuanced relationship between the Ainu and the bear, demonstrating the bear’s deep cultural integration within Ainu society. This contrasts strongly with its less prominent role in mainstream Japanese culture.

The study also examines the bear's limited presence in Japanese folktales and literature. Unlike animals such as foxes and tanuki, the bear appears less frequently and often plays a secondary or interchangeable role in stories. When it does appear, it's frequently in trickster tales where the bear is deceived or outwitted. While there are a few exceptions (like the tale 'Kitsune to kuma'), the bear generally lacks the central, symbolic role held by other animals in Japanese folklore. The author suggests two potential reasons for this low profile: a lack of significant representation in Chinese literature and art (influencing Japanese perceptions during periods of strong cultural exchange) and the bear’s habitat in forested uplands which made direct contact with lowland dwelling populations less frequent than that with monkeys or raccoon dogs which inhabited areas more closely associated with human habitation. This analysis helps to illuminate the cultural background against which contemporary human-bear interactions in Japan must be understood.

A key driver of human-bear conflict in Japan is habitat loss and subsequent food scarcity for bears. The intensive logging during wartime and the subsequent post-war reforestation movement, focused on maximizing profit from conifer plantations, drastically altered the Japanese landscape. This transformation replaced broadleaf forests, crucial for bear habitat and food sources, with coniferous trees, reducing the availability of natural food sources for bears. As a result, bears are more likely to venture into human-populated areas in search of alternative food sources, leading to increased conflict. The fluctuation in natural food availability, particularly mast crops like beechnuts and acorns, significantly impacts bear behavior and the frequency of incidents. Years with poor mast crops correspond to higher rates of bear culling, demonstrating the direct link between ecological factors and human-bear conflict. The concept of 'abnormal appearances' (ijō shutsubotsu) highlights how unexpected bear sightings in human areas intensify negative perceptions and fuel demands for culling.

Another significant factor contributing to the rise in human-bear conflict is the increase in human activity within bear habitats. Improved accessibility due to expanding road networks and the increasing popularity of four-wheel-drive vehicles has enabled more people to enter forested uplands for leisure activities such as hiking and wild food gathering (sansai). This increased human presence overlaps with bears' foraging patterns, increasing the likelihood of encounters. The popularity of collecting sansai (mountain vegetables) and wild mushrooms, which are also vital food sources for bears, further intensifies this interaction. The proximity of human activities to crucial bear resources, such as mountain streams, increases the frequency of conflict. This increased human presence in bear habitats is not solely a matter of accidental encounters; it is also linked to a broader societal phenomenon of an 'outdoor boom' in Japan, resulting in an intensified human footprint in previously less-accessible forested areas.

The study identifies rural depopulation as a critical factor exacerbating human-bear conflict. The decline in rural populations, driven by out-migration to urban centers, leaves behind disproportionately elderly populations in remote communities. This leads to reduced activity levels in these villages, making them more vulnerable to bear incursions. The research draws on Knight's (2003) observation that remoter, upstream villages are more affected by wildlife pestilence due to their age and depopulation. The social and economic alienation felt by those remaining in these communities is intensified by wildlife conflict. Small-holder farmers, feeling abandoned by the government and stigmatized as 'backward', bear the brunt of the economic costs associated with wildlife damage. This sense of alienation, coupled with the perception of bears as pests, creates a complex interplay of factors driving conflict. The study introduces the concept of the 'bear as a social barometer', recognizing that human-bear conflict serves as a manifestation of larger social and economic inequalities in Japanese society.

The study analyzes the effectiveness of existing legal frameworks in managing and conserving bear populations in Japan. The Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law, revised in 1963, aims to protect and manage wildlife populations, including bears, but its primary function remains hunting regulation. The law designates game species (approximately 50), including the Asiatic black bear, while others are protected. Hunting is permitted unless specifically prohibited in designated non-hunting zones. The Specific Wildlife Management Planning System (1999), introduced as part of a decentralization policy, allows prefectures to formulate and implement regional wildlife management plans. However, plan implementation faces challenges due to a lack of resources and expertise at the prefectural level. While initial plan formulation received external support, subsequent implementation lacked ongoing resources, hindering effective population monitoring and management. The 2006 'Emergency Response Manual' is cited as an example of inadequate central government response to a crisis year for bear management and conservation. ALIVE (All Life In a Viable Environment), an NGO, criticized the lack of a national conservation plan, highlighting the limitations of the current decentralized approach.

A significant gap exists between the intentions of wildlife management legislation and the actual implementation on the ground. Prefectural governments often lack the resources (budget and staff with specialist expertise) to effectively implement the plans. Fundamental tasks such as accurately estimating bear populations—requiring scientific expertise, technology, and equipment—are often impossible for many prefectures to undertake. This lack of resources also hinders population monitoring, a crucial step in evaluating the success of management strategies. Even basic tasks like establishing baseline data for subsequent monitoring are often neglected. One expert suggested that due to these limitations, prefectures should focus their limited resources solely on pestilence prevention rather than attempting population estimates. This emphasizes the challenges in achieving the legislative goals of long-term population stability and viability due to significant resource constraints at the local level and a lack of cohesive national leadership.

The research explores the role of local communities and their traditional knowledge in bear management, contrasting this with the often top-down approach of government agencies. The study highlights examples where local communities, particularly those with a history of hunting (such as matagi villages), have developed effective, long-standing systems for managing their interaction with bears. This approach emphasizes a balance between human needs and wildlife preservation. In contrast, communities experiencing recent increases in bear activity, especially those near urban areas, are less tolerant and more likely to call for culling. The example of a farm manager in Iwate Prefecture who instead of culling a sow with cubs provided extra corn for them is presented. Similarly, an apple orchard owner in Hyogo Prefecture who viewed the loss of 10,000 apples to bears as a 'gift' highlights a contrasting perspective. These examples demonstrate the complex dynamics between the different groups in society involved in human-bear conflicts; and the diversity of perceptions and responses to bear issues, based on experience, location, and cultural background. The town of Ani in Akita Prefecture serves as a specific case study illustrating a centuries-old bear management system within a traditional matagi village, demonstrating the potential value of local, traditional knowledge in current bear management strategies.

The research employs Iwate Prefecture as a focused case study to examine bear management and human-bear interactions within a specific regional context. Fieldwork was conducted in two trips to Japan (May-June 2005 and October 2006), with the majority of time spent in Iwate Prefecture. Fieldwork within Iwate was centered around Morioka City and the Tōno City area, chosen for practical reasons (existing contacts) and their contrasting demographics and geographies. Morioka's proximity to the Ōu Ranges and a large city contrasts with Tōno's location near the lower Kitakami Highlands and its historically agrarian town character. Gifu Prefecture was also included as a fieldwork site to understand damage to silviculture, a major form of bear-related damage nationally, but less prevalent in Iwate. This multi-site approach allows a broader understanding of the diverse factors that shape human-bear interactions across varying geographical and population densities.

The Iwate Prefecture case study reveals contrasting responses to bear encounters based on location and occupational background. In the Morioka area, closer to a large city, there is a greater tendency to report incidents and call for culling. Conversely, farmers in more rural upland areas, accustomed to regular bear activity, exhibit more tolerance, often viewing bear interactions as a predictable, though unwanted, part of their livelihood. This aligns with findings from Maita's (1998) survey, which showed that fear and negative sentiment were highest amongst those living in the foothills and lower mountain regions, who often encounter bears through agricultural or forestry damage, particularly in years with low mast production. Urban residents, comparatively unaffected by bear encounters, were more inclined to express conservationist views. This three-way delineation (urban, lowland/foothill, upland) reflects Japan's unique geography and settlement patterns. This highlights the significant impact of proximity to bear activity and long-standing community experiences on attitudes toward bear management.

The case study in Iwate Prefecture highlights the development and implementation of the 'Plan for the Conservation and Management of the Asiatic Black Bear' (effective from 2003). This plan, a product of the Asiatic Black Bear Management and Conservation Committee, involved collaboration between prefectural and municipal officials, researchers, academics, hunters' associations (Iwate-ken Ryōyūkai), and the Iwate Wildlife Conservation Council (Iwate-ken Chōjūhogoin Kyōgikai). The committee's formation and the creation of the plan followed increased public awareness fueled by a series of bear-related articles in the Iwate Nippō newspaper. The plan is limited to Iwate Prefecture, however, highlighting a shortcoming in the broader management strategy; it does not account for the bear population that extends across prefectural boundaries into Akita and Aomori Prefectures. The lack of a coordinated inter-prefectural approach to bear management and conservation is a significant weakness identified in the study, especially in the Ōu Mountains where the bear population is not limited by prefectural lines.

The case study also analyzed media coverage of bear incidents in Iwate Prefecture and nationally. While initially sensationalist and fear-mongering in its approach, media coverage shifted to more factual and balanced reporting in later decades. This change highlights the increasing influence of ecological and scientific perspectives on media representations of human-bear conflict. In 2004, a year with many bear incidents, media coverage was extensive. The analysis of Mainichi Shinbun articles (290 total) categorized coverage into 'positive,' 'negative,' 'neutral,' and 'other' categories. This reveals the complex interplay of public perception, media portrayal, and the resulting policy responses. The study notes the potential influence of the Iwate Nippō series in prompting significant policy changes concerning bear management in Iwate Prefecture, even if the timing was coincidental. Anecdotes from the Iwate Nippō series demonstrated that responses to bear incidents are complex and not neatly divided along pro-hunting vs. conservationist lines, showing the varied responses depending on the individuals and the circumstances of each specific incident.