Virtual Reality: Bodies, Tech, Worlds

This subsection focuses on how virtual reality technologies challenge and destabilize established social categories. The author highlights the blurring of boundaries between 'self' and 'other', 'real' and 'unreal', 'human' and 'non-human', and 'technology' and 'society'. The introduction of virtual reality is positioned as a disruptive force, questioning the inherent stability of these typically rigid classifications. The core argument revolves around the power dynamics inherent in these boundary crossings and the potential for both reinforcing and subverting existing power structures. The text suggests that the ability of VR to generate worlds and simulate people within them creates a space where conventional understandings of identity and difference are interrogated and potentially redefined. The potential for both positive and negative impacts is implied – while VR might offer opportunities for challenging exclusion and inequality, it also carries the risk of reinforcing existing hierarchies.

This subsection emphasizes the central role of 'experience' in navigating the complexities of virtual reality and its impact on identity. The author challenges the notion of experience as purely personal, arguing instead for its inherently social nature. The text draws on feminist, cultural, and science and technology studies to contextualize the struggles over 'experience' and their significance in shaping subjectivity and embodiment within VR. Key questions explored include: what kinds of social experiences are made available through VR? What digital worlds are created, and what kinds of persons, bodies, and identities are produced through participation? How are categories of identity and difference reworked within these virtual spaces? The section establishes 'experience' not as a fixed entity but as a process constantly being constructed and negotiated through interaction with technology. Kendrick's quote, '[t]he making of subjectivity…is not a metaphor; construction requires tools, and technology…provides the tools that aid in constantly reconstructing notions of identity' highlights this dynamic process.

The subsection examines the complex interplay between embodiment and disembodiment within virtual reality. While acknowledging the inherent embodied nature of human experience, the author points to the prevalent representation of VR experiences as 'disembodied'. This is challenged through the discussion of different VR technologies' capacities for simulating presence, including the use of sensory feedback through data gloves and the potential development of datasuits. The potential of VR to transcend limitations of physical embodiment (age, gender, ethnicity, ability) is noted, but is offset by the argument that notions of digital presence can be explicitly constructed in ways that reinforce existing prejudices. Jaron Lanier's view of VR as the 'ultimate lack of race or class distinctions' is contrasted against the realities of how virtual worlds are often designed and experienced. The 'ideology of immersion' in commercial VR entertainment is introduced as a key concept in this dynamic.

This subsection contrasts two distinct approaches to embodiment within virtual environments, using Virtuality®'s Dactyl Nightmare™ and OSMOSE© as case studies. Dactyl Nightmare™, a widely available game, is presented as an example of a virtual world that reinforces conventional bodily markers, particularly those associated with femininity. The emphasis on visual representation and the use of a female character in a form-fitting suit as a visual prompt for game use are noted. Conversely, OSMOSE©, an installation art work, is highlighted as employing an alternative approach by utilizing breathing as the primary means of navigation, creating an experience centered around presence rather than the assignment of a digital body. The section suggests that the meaning of embodiment in digital spaces is significantly influenced by design choices, showcasing a spectrum of possibilities in how digital bodies and identities are formed and experienced. Different kinds of 'presence' are shown to be created through different technologies.

This section argues for a shift away from abstract theoretical discussions of 'the virtual' towards empirical, ethnographic studies of virtual reality. The author criticizes the lack of concrete examples and specific instances of body-technology interaction in existing critical analyses. The absence of this kind of research is identified as a significant gap, highlighting the need to examine how the politics of immersive virtual reality technologies are enacted in various social contexts. The author stresses the importance of understanding the material processes involved in creating virtual experiences and how people 'do' virtual reality technologies in specific locations. This focus on materiality is presented as crucial for a comprehensive understanding of VR's impact. The call for documentation of VR artifacts and their ongoing development, alongside observation of how people utilize and reinvent these technologies, reflects the belief that a comprehensive analysis requires attention to the dynamic interaction between users and technology. The author aims to illustrate the heterogeneity and points of rupture in the ways technical systems are created, adopted, and utilized.

This subsection delves into the tangible aspects of virtual reality and their impact on user experience and embodiment. It highlights how the physical characteristics of VR equipment, such as data gloves and head-mounted displays (HMDs), directly influence the user's interaction with and perception of the virtual world. Data gloves are discussed as interactive intermediaries between computer-generated constructs and human bodies, providing a sense of touch. The concept extends to datasuits which provide tactile feedback across the whole body. The pursuit of fully immersive and interactive virtual worlds, with full-body suits being the ultimate development goal, illustrates the prioritization of physical interaction in VR research. The discussion underscores the importance of considering the material and bodily aspects of connection to virtual systems, pushing beyond the purely digital to include the physical constraints and affordances of VR technology. The author emphasizes the need to analyze how 'technology' is inextricably linked with 'the social' within socio-technical networks of practice.

This subsection explores how the physical agencies enabled and constrained by virtual reality technologies shape users' experiences and understanding of their bodies. It moves beyond the purely digital aspects of representation to consider bodily actions and interactivity within the virtual and physical worlds. The author emphasizes that constructing identity and difference within VR is not simply a matter of interpreting digital narratives; it involves the physical construction of 'presence', 'action', and 'interaction'. The physical aspects of interacting with VR equipment are examined, highlighting how these processes have implications for meaning-making about body, self, identity, and difference. The text emphasizes the interrelationship of knowledge and power in shaping these interactions. This analysis positions socio-technical artifacts at the center, opening up questions about VR as technical, economic, and cultural objects. Ethnographic stories are mentioned as a valuable tool for understanding how power functions through physical artifacts in the production and consumption of virtual realities.

This section analyzes the potentially 'normalizing' effects of virtual reality technology on user embodiment. The concept of normalization is defined as the extension of control and self-regulation; VR systems often embody and reinforce certain norms through their design and the experiences they provide. This concept is further explored through the discussion of how the design of virtual worlds and the representation of digital bodies encode specific understandings about the range of human body forms and activities. The idea of a 'normalizing body' is introduced, highlighting how virtual reality can both reflect and reinforce pre-existing social norms regarding gender, race, and other markers of difference. The author uses examples to illustrate how certain body types might be privileged in VR design and how this can impact participation. The discussion touches upon the mismatch between certain bodies and VR technology and notes how such physical constraints can influence user experience and create barriers to participation, with potential implications for gender and other social dynamics.

This subsection analyzes Virtuality®'s Dactyl Nightmare™ as a case study in how virtual worlds construct identity. The game, a popular title within Virtuality's entertainment offerings, is described as involving participants shooting other characters to score points. A key element is the pre-briefing video, which features a conventionally attractive female character demonstrating the game's use. This video sets expectations about body movement and the ideal player persona. However, the game itself notably lacks a representation of a digital body; players see only a pair of hands on the controls. This juxtaposition of the idealized female body in the pre-briefing with the disembodied hands during gameplay points to a disconnect between the marketing of the virtual experience and the actual experience of the game. The analysis suggests that the game's design contributes to an 'ideology of immersion' while also implicitly shaping and potentially limiting how participants might understand and perform their identities within the virtual world. The idealized representation of the female character, adhering to conventional notions of femininity, raises questions about the reinforcement of existing social norms within the game's design.

This subsection contrasts Virtuality®'s approach to identity with that of OSMOSE©, an installation art piece created by Char Davies. Unlike Virtuality® games, OSMOSE© uses breathing as the primary method of navigation, creating a different relationship between body and virtual world. This approach is described as generating a sense of embodiment through a point of view and gaze, without assigning a ‘puppet body’ to the participant. The meaning of embodiment stems from the construction of perspective and the visual elements of the virtual forest world. The ‘shapeshifting’ aspect of OSMOSE©, where participants can transform into different characters, highlights the performative nature of identity. The comparison between OSMOSE© and Virtuality®'s games emphasizes the diverse ways virtual worlds can shape user identity, some reinforcing pre-existing norms, others challenging them. The absence of a fixed digital body in OSMOSE© contrasts with the implied ideal in Dactyl Nightmare™, offering a more open and potentially more radical performativity for identity exploration.

This subsection introduces Placeholder, another virtual world that contrasts with Virtuality®’s approach. It emphasizes the creation of narratives through the relationships between participants and their environment. The interaction with the environment is facilitated by a 'Goddess' character, controlled by an external observer, who directs the participants' experiences through comments and suggestions. Placeholder's focus on storytelling and the use of evocative signs and symbols instead of photorealism distinguish it from Virtuality® games. The ‘totemic’ characters available in Placeholder make the performative aspect of identities and bodies more explicit. The section draws on Butler's work to explain this ‘performative’ nature of digital bodies, asserting that they can offer spaces for disrupting stable gender identities. However, it also acknowledges the potential for the misuse of the technology, such as the cultural appropriation of indigenous cultures, raising ethical concerns about representation and power dynamics in virtual worlds.

This subsection examines the instability of digital embodiment and identity in virtual worlds. The author argues that participants do not necessarily become 'other' in these environments and that their everyday identities are carried over, although potentially modified. The discussion highlights that participants are sophisticated consumers of media, bringing their existing knowledge and experiences to shape their interactions. Although digital markers of identity and difference exist within virtual worlds, they do not always supersede or drastically alter participants' pre-existing sense of self. The simultaneous inhabitation of programmed and non-programmed worlds within VR is shown to destabilize the binary system of boundary markers, challenging simplistic notions of identity and difference in virtual spaces. The discussion highlights that even in attempts to impose fixed digital identities, these remain unstable and in continual negotiation.

This section examines how the enactment of digital embodiment in virtual worlds redefines what constitutes embodiment in technologically mediated cultures. It emphasizes that these practices are not isolated but are deeply connected to broader networks of collective life and cultural norms. The concept of 'habitus' (Bourdieu, 1989) is introduced to explain how ingrained social, economic, cultural, and symbolic capital shapes the embodied practices of individuals. Habitus is characterized as a system of producing practices and a system of perceiving and appreciating practices, creating a 'sense of one's place' and the 'place of others'. These 'distinctions' are not merely matters of cultural taste but detailed categorizations of social subjects, institutionally embedded within everyday life. The section highlights that the enactment of digital embodiment is a multifaceted process occurring in local contexts and shaped by pre-existing social and cultural frameworks.

This subsection analyzes the concept of 'presence' in virtual worlds, arguing that it is not just a technical issue but a culturally constructed phenomenon that shapes authority and agency. Drawing on Sandy Stone's (1995) work, the section links the notion of presence to historical logics of governance, where physical presence was essential for authority. The evolution from embodied physical presence to delegated or prosthetic representations (bureaucratic paperwork) is noted. In contemporary virtual worlds, 'presence' is shown to serve as a means of fixing identity and attributing agency and authority. The assignment of specific characteristics to enact 'agency' within digital spaces is discussed, emphasizing the power dynamics involved in creating and maintaining a sense of presence in virtual reality. This discussion moves beyond simply the technological to the social and cultural implications.

This subsection discusses the role of tacit knowledge in shaping the user experience of virtual reality. It introduces Polanyi's (1958) concept of 'tacit knowledge' as the personal, unspoken knowledge individuals bring to perception, language, symbolism, and social interactions. The author argues that understanding how individuals make sense of virtual realities requires considering this tacit knowledge, which includes perceptual, cognitive, and cultural embodiment. Participants are not passive recipients of VR experiences but actively engage with the technology, modifying their assumptions and practices based on collective and individual experiences. Learning to use VR systems is presented as a process of accumulating and modifying tacit knowledge sets, continuously evolving within different experiential contexts. The integration of tacit knowledge into the user's interaction with VR is shown to be crucial to understanding their meaning-making process.

This subsection explores how virtual reality technologies discipline users' bodies, both enabling and constraining their perceptions and actions. The author connects this to the concept of normalization, arguing that VR systems often define what is considered 'normal' human embodiment. Video games are used as a point of reference, highlighting how their structures and conventions often involve specific bodily activities and cognitive strategies. Provenzo's (1991) work on video games is cited to explain the goal-oriented nature of these games and their function in creating self-contained microworlds that reward skill and strategic thinking. The intersection of cognitive and bodily disciplines in video games is presented as relevant to understanding VR experiences, illustrating both the freedoms and constraints imposed on users' movement, action, and interaction within virtual environments. This understanding of bodily discipline is vital for exploring power dynamics within VR systems.

This section explores how virtual reality technologies can act as a normalizing force, shaping and reinforcing dominant conceptions of the body and identity. It argues that the technologies themselves, through their design and the techniques employed, discipline participants' bodies, constraining perceptions and actions. Ramazanoglu's (1993) concept of normalization—the extension of control and self-regulation—is introduced to explain how VR systems define what is considered 'normal' and what deviates from that norm. The 'generic body' represented in many virtual worlds, either through assigned digital bodies or points of view, is identified as a 'normalizing body'. This ‘normalizing body’ reflects and reinforces discursively produced understandings about acceptable forms and activities for human bodies, encompassing appearance, qualities, and the disciplinary processes associated with their construction. This normalization process is highlighted as being significantly influenced by prevailing social discourses around gender, race, and sexuality.

This subsection discusses the limitations of the 'generic body' model in virtual reality and how it affects the experiences of diverse individuals. It highlights that the design of VR systems often assumes a certain range of body types, rendering those outside this 'norm' as 'problematic'. The author's personal experiences with VR equipment, which was often pre-configured for larger individuals, are used as an example. The potential impact of gender on this dynamic is discussed, exploring how the design might implicitly favor male users, creating barriers for women. The text argues that this incomplete mapping of bodies is not limited to individuals with disabilities; 'ability' itself is contextual, showing that a 'perfect fit' is not only an individual concern but also a collective one, determined by the social organization of the system. The author suggests that such design choices contribute to differential participation rates across different demographics, illustrating how technology can both create and reinforce social inequalities.

This subsection explores how users can resist and subvert the normalizing tendencies of virtual reality systems. The section contrasts the often-implicit normalization of virtual worlds with the capacity for users to actively negotiate and redefine their experiences and identities. The author argues that while VR environments might attempt to fix and control identity and difference, the actual experience is more fluid and complex. Participants’ own perspectives, critiques, and resistances to aspects such as violent video game narratives and hypermasculinity are presented as forms of subversion. The example of OSMOSE© is used to illustrate a VR experience that is more reflexive about, and resistant to, dominant ways of seeing. The author notes that participants in OSMOSE© often negotiate the notion of disembodied presence in a way that acknowledges their material embodiment rather than erasing it. This suggests that VR is not a passive technology but one subject to continuous negotiation and reworking by its users.

This section explores the various ways access to and participation in virtual reality are regulated and controlled, highlighting the power dynamics inherent in these processes. Different sites of VR use, such as arcades and dedicated installations, are shown to have varying methods of regulating participation. The author's own discomfort in a video arcade is described as an example of the contradictory ways individuals might be positioned within VR consumption sites. Specific examples of access control include explicit exclusion of homeless people by security or the implicit discouragement of certain groups by staff. The exclusion of school-aged children from arcades during school hours and the use of appointment schedules for accessing specific installations illustrate how access is managed. These regulations are shown to be related to wider social factors like the spatial distribution of VR technology and community relations within various settings.

This section re-emphasizes the concept of 'experience' as a central element in understanding virtual reality. It rejects the notion of experience as a fixed or essential quality, instead framing it as a process co-constructed through the interaction of technology, social relationships, and individual interpretation. The marketing of embodied experiences in VR, rather than specific world content, is highlighted. 'Experience' is described as a means of communicating events and legitimizing interpretations of our relationships with others, things, and institutions; it's a way of storytelling. The author emphasizes that experiences are not simply caused or affected by technologies but are actively involved in their creation. This co-construction happens within intricate networks of material, textual, semiotic, and interpersonal relations, positioning individuals bodily, economically, and politically. The highly negotiated nature of 'experience' is stressed, indicating its role as a key area for examining and problematizing the discourses and practices surrounding VR.

This subsection summarizes the central argument regarding the dual nature of virtual reality: its capacity for both normalization and resistance. The author notes how the everyday phenomenological world foregrounds the analytical significance of bodily and subjective histories within VR. The processual nature of identity markers, like gender, is emphasized, illustrating how these interact with both the technological system and the wider social discourses. The narratives of participants in OSMOSE© demonstrate the unstable and negotiated nature of ‘presence’ in VR. While VR can promote dominant ways of seeing, it can also function reflexively and resist them. The conclusion points out that the specific ways in which users engage with and interpret virtual realities reflect both their individual experiences and the broader social contexts they are embedded within.

The final subsection focuses on the problematic nature of 'presence' as a dominant mode of becoming virtual, particularly its reliance on historically masculinist ways of seeing and its use of conventional markers of difference within a dualistic representational system. In commercial VR, such as Virtuality®, 'presence' is often interpreted as disembodiment. The section notes the discourses surrounding virtual reality often encompass desires for freedom, escape from organic embodiment, and digital space colonization, all presented as heroic achievements of technological progress. However, the author cautions against assuming that computing technologies will always reflect dominant social norms. Patricia Wise's (1997) work is cited to counter the assumption that this pattern will continue indefinitely. The conclusion advocates for further critical examination of how cultural, economic, and technical relationships interact to shape participation in virtual reality.